Negligence

Contributory negligence in common-law jurisdictions is a defense to a claim based on negligence. It applies to cases where a plaintiff or claimant has, through his or her own negligence, contributed to the harm he or she suffered. 

For example, a pedestrian crosses a road negligently and is hit by a driver who was driving negligently. The pedestrian has contributed to the accident. Another example of contributory negligence is where a plaintiff voluntarily disregards warnings and assumes a certain level of risk. 

There are certain causes of action within the field of torts which are relevant to a manufacturer s duty to warn of the risks of his products. One of these was developed shortly after the turn of the 19th century, as accidents in- 

Under common law principles of negligence, a supplier of a product will be liable for physical harm caused by a product, if the supplier knew or had reason to know that the product was likely to be dangerous when used for its intended purpose, had no reason to believe that the user would realize the danger, and failed to exercise reasonable care to inform the user of the dangerous condition or of facts which made the product likely to be dangerous. A manufacturer must provide products that are reasonably safe for their foreseeable use.  

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For typical conditions in the chemical industry, the effect of pressure on liquid-liquid equilibria is negligible and therefore in this monograph pressure is not considered as a variable in Equation (2). 

The standard-state fugacity of any component must be evaluated at the same temperature as that of the solution, regardless of whether the symmetric or unsymmetric convention is used for activity-coefficient normalization. But what about the pressure At low pressures, the effect of pressure on the thermodynamic properties of condensed phases is negligible and under such con-... 

Figures 3 and 4 show fugacity coefficients for two binary systems calculated with Equation (10b). Although the pressure is not large, deviations from ideality and from the Lewis rule are not negligible.

While vapor-phase corrections may be small for nonpolar molecules at low pressure, such corrections are usually not negligible for mixtures containing polar molecules. Vapor-phase corrections are extremely important for mixtures containing one or more carboxylic acids. 

At low pressures, it is often permissible to neglect nonidealities of the vapor phase. If these nonidealities are not negligible, they can have the effect of introducing a nonrandom trend into the plotted residuals similar to that introduced by systematic error. Experience here has shown that application of vapor-phase corrections for nonidealities gives a better representation of the data by the model, oven when these corrections... 

The effect of pressure is neglected. The limits of this model are easy to understand each component must exist in the liquid state for the Cp/ to be known equally important is that the effect of pressure must be negligible which is the case for < 0.8 and P < 1. 

The primary drive mechanism for gas field production is the expansion of the gas contained in the reservoir. Relative to oil reservoirs, the material balance calculations for gas reservoirs is rather simple the recovery factor is linked to the drop in reservoir pressure in an almost linear manner. The non-linearity is due to the changing z-factor (introduced in Section 5.2.4) as the pressure drops. A plot of (P/ z) against the recovery factor is linear if aquifer influx and pore compaction are negligible. The material balance may therefore be represented by the following plot (often called the P over z plot). 

Thermal power plant components operated at high temperatures (>500°C) and pressures, such as superheater headers, steamline sections and Y-junctions, deserve great attention for both operation safety and plant availability concerns. In particular, during plant operation transients -startups, shutdowns or load transients - the above components may undergo high rates of temperature / pressure variations and, consequently, non-negligible time-dependent stresses which, in turn, may locally destabilize existing cracks and cause the release of acoustic emission. 

In fact a sensor measures a flow and proceeds an integration of across a surface, which operates as a spacial lowpass filter. To avoid a critical deconvolution, the error due to this integration must be kept negligible. 

More accurately, as the inverse problem process computes a quadratic error with every point of a local area around a flaw, we shall limit the sensor surface so that the quadratic error induced by the integration lets us separate two close flaws and remains negligible in comparison with other noises or errors. An inevitable noise is the electronic noise due to the coil resistance, that we can estimate from geometrical and physical properties of the sensor. Here are the main conclusions ... 

It should be noted that here, as with capillary rise, there is an adsorbed film of vapor (see Section X-6D) with which the meniscus merges smoothly. The meniscus is not hanging from the plate but rather fiom a liquidlike film [53]. The correction for the weight of such film should be negligible, however. 

Harkins then estimated Tc for diamond to be about 6700 K and, using Eq. HI-10, found the entropy correction at 25°C to be negligible so that the preceding values also approximate the room temperature surface free energies. These... 

The entropically driven disorder-order transition in hard-sphere fluids was originally discovered in computer simulations [58, 59]. The development of colloidal suspensions behaving as hard spheres (i.e., having negligible Hamaker constants, see Section VI-3) provided the means to experimentally verify the transition. Experimental data on the nucleation of hard-sphere colloidal crystals [60] allows one to extract the hard-sphere solid-liquid interfacial tension, 7 = 0.55 0.02k T/o, where a is the hard-sphere diameter [61]. This value agrees well with that found from density functional theory, 7 = 0.6 0.02k r/a 2 [21] (Section IX-2A). 

In practice, 7s 7sv is negligible as is dys/dT for systems having large contact angles. Also, low energy surfaces have a relatively constant value of dyst/dT = 0.07 0.02 erg cm K , leaving... 

Thus the entropy of localized adsorption can range widely, depending on whether the site is viewed as equivalent to a strong adsorption bond of negligible entropy or as a potential box plus a weak bond (see Ref. 12). In addition, estimates of AS ds should include possible surface vibrational contributions in the case of mobile adsorption, and all calculations are faced with possible contributions from a loss in rotational entropy on adsorption as well as from change in the adsorbent structure following adsorption (see Section XVI-4B). These uncertainties make it virtually impossible to affirm what the state of an adsorbed film is from entropy measurements alone for this, additional independent information about surface mobility and vibrational surface states is needed. (However, see Ref. 15 for a somewhat more optimistic conclusion.)... 

In the case of multilayer adsorption it seems reasonable to suppose that condensation to a liquid film occurs (as in curves T or of Fig. XVII-13). If one now assumes that the amount adsorbed can be attributed entirely to such a film, and that the liquid is negligibly compressible, the thickness x of the film is related to n by... 

A charge transfer contribution is often identified in perturbative descriptions of intennolecular forces. This, however, is not a new effect but a part of the short-range induction energy. It is possible to separate the charge transfer part from the rest of the induction energy [80]. It turns out to be relatively small and often negligible. Stone [28] has explained clearly how charge transfer has often been a source of confusion and error. 

To define the thennodynamic state of a system one must specify fhe values of a minimum number of variables, enough to reproduce the system with all its macroscopic properties. If special forces (surface effecls, external fields—electric, magnetic, gravitational, etc) are absent, or if the bulk properties are insensitive to these forces, e.g. the weak terrestrial magnetic field, it ordinarily suffices—for a one-component system—to specify fliree variables, e.g. fhe femperature T, the pressure p and the number of moles n, or an equivalent set. For example, if the volume of a surface layer is negligible in comparison with the total volume, surface effects usually contribute negligibly to bulk thennodynamic properties. 

If a system at eqnilibrinm is enclosed by an adiabatic wall, tlie only way the system can be disturbed is by movmg part of the wall i.e. the only conpling between the system and its snrronndings is by work, nomially mechanical. (The adiabatic wall is an idealized concept no real wall can prevent any condnction of heat over a long time. Flowever, heat transfer mnst be negligible over the time period of an experiment.)... 

In the phase equilibrium between a pure solid (or a liquid) and its vapour, the addition of other gases, as long as they are insoluble in the solid or liquid, has negligible effect on the partial pressure of the vapour. 

Its ratio to the first temi can be seen to be (5 J / 5 Ef) E HT. Since E is proportional to the number of particles in the system A and Ej, is proportional to the number of particles in the composite system N + N, the ratio of the second-order temi to tire first-order temi is proportional to N N + N. Since the reservoir is assumed to be much bigger than the system, (i.e. N) this ratio is negligible, and the truncation of the... 

The temi og l KN)ky is negligible compared to temis proportional to Nky.) The entropy obtained from the... 

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