Microscopic topics

If the query provides thousands of hits, the analyze features are particularly advantageous. One method is to analyze the results by any of the criteria that arc listed, c.g., by language (default), author names, journals, puhlication year, and so on. If one specification is selected and the choice is modified, the hit list will be updated. A more specific analysis is available with the Refine" option. where the user has the opportunity to choose one of eight criteria (including the search topics above) with further individual input. Several refinements of the hit list can reduce the result to a concise list of literature. To read the abstract of an article, the microscope button (to the right of the citation) has to be pressed (Figure 5-15). 

Membrane Cliaraeterization MF membranes are rated bvtliix and pore size. Microfiltration membranes are imiqiielv testable bv direct examination, but since the number of pores that rnav be obsen ed directlv bv microscope is so small, microscopic pore size determination is rnainlv useful for membrane research and verification of other pore-size-determining methods. Furthermore, the most critical dimension rnav not be obseiA able from the surface. Few MF membranes have neat, cvlindrical pores. Indirect means of measurement are generallv superior. Accurate characterization of MF membranes is a continuing research topic for which interested parties should consult the current literature. 

All the macroscopic properties of polymers depend on a number of different factors prominent among them are the chemical structures as well as the arrangement of the macromolecules in a dense packing [1-6]. The relationships between the microscopic details and the macroscopic properties are the topics of interest here. In principle, computer simulation is a universal tool for deriving the macroscopic properties of materials from the microscopic input [7-14]. Starting from the chemical structure, quantum mechanical methods and spectroscopic information yield effective potentials that are used in Monte Carlo (MC) and molecular dynamics (MD) simulations in order to study the structure and dynamics of these materials on the relevant length scales and time scales, and to characterize the resulting thermal and mechanical proper-... 

Treatment is typically initiated based on symptoms, rather than on microscopic evaluation. Since several species can cause tinea infections, the choice of antifungal agent is not always clear. For infections accompanied by inflammation, combination therapy with a topical steroid can be considered. 

The significance of the barrier function of membranes has been the topic of considerable research. The blood-brain barrier and the blood-retinal barrier are well understood, and the microscopic structures imparting and controlling barrier properties have been quite thoroughly investigated and the science reviewed [15, 154-155], The structures and functions of ocular membranes specific to transport associated with ophthalmic drug administration also have been topics of extensive research [15, 157-158],... 

The topic of this review, reactions at metal surfaces, has been in general treated in a similar way to gas-phase reactivity. High level ab initio electronic structure methods are used to construct potential energy surfaces of catalytically important surface reactions in reduced dimensions. Once a chemically accurate potential surface is available, quantum or classical dynamics may be carried out in order to more deeply understand the microscopic nature of the reaction. 

In addition to the described above methods, there are computational QM-MM (quantum mechanics-classic mechanics) methods in progress of development. They allow prediction and understanding of solvatochromism and fluorescence characteristics of dyes that are situated in various molecular structures changing electrical properties on nanoscale. Their electronic transitions and according microscopic structures are calculated using QM coupled to the point charges with Coulombic potentials. It is very important that in typical QM-MM simulations, no dielectric constant is involved Orientational dielectric effects come naturally from reorientation and translation of the elements of the system on the pathway of attaining the equilibrium. Dynamics of such complex systems as proteins embedded in natural environment may be revealed with femtosecond time resolution. In more detail, this topic is analyzed in this volume [76]. 

Graham coined the term "colloid" to describe suspensions of small particles in a liquid.(J ) Such particles are generally considered to be from 1 to 5000 nm in diameter and are not easily precipitated, filtered, or observed by ordinary optical microscopes. The topic of this paper is metallic colloidal particles, often called metal sols, with special emphasis on non-aqueous media. Some history of gold sols is appropriate. 

The corrections and calibration of filterFRET differ significantly for CCD microscopes and confocal microscopes. This is because in confocal experiments, channel sensitivities are adjusted at will by the experimenter, and because relative excitation intensities show intended-as well as unintended variations (adjustments and drift, respectively). Confocal filterFRET therefore requires frequent, if not in-line, recalibration however, if properly streamlined this should not take more than 15 min a day. It also slightly complicates the mathematical framework, as compared to CCD imaging filterFRET. We aimed to arrive at a comprehensive theory that is equally applicable to both imaging modes. We also proposed mathematical jargon that is a compromise between the widely differing terminologies used in the various publications on this topic. 

A specific set of experiments which must be mentioned, being directly associated with the main topic of this paper, is the work of Bergman, et. al. (22) dealing with the second-order nonlinear optical properties of polyvinylidene fluoride (PVF2). Nonvanishing the second-order nonlinear electric dipole susceptibility, is expected in PVF2 since it exhibits other properties requiring noncentrosymmetric microscopic structure. These properties appear... 

For readers learning electron diffraction, there are a number of books on electron diffraction for materials characterization [1,2,3,4]. Most of these books focus on crystals since many polycrystalline materials are perfect single crystals in an electron microscope because of the small electron probe. Full treatment of the dynamic theory of electron diffraction is given in several special topic books and reviews [5,6,7,8]. 

Local composition is very useful supplementary information that can be obtained in many of the transmission electron microscopes (TEM). The two main methods to measure local composition are electron energy loss spectrometry (EELS), which is a topic of a separate paper in this volume (Mayer 2004) and x-ray emission spectrometry, which is named EDS or EDX after the energy dispersive spectrometer, because this type of x-ray detection became ubiquitous in the TEM. Present paper introduces this latter method, which measures the X-rays produced by the fast electrons of the TEM, bombarding the sample, to determine the local composition. As an independent topic, information content and usage of the popular X-ray powder dififaction database is also introduced here. Combination of information from these two sources results in an efficient phase identification. Identification of known phases is contrasted to solving unknown stmctures, the latter being the topic of the largest fiaction of this school. 

The nature and relevance of colloids is one of the main current research topics (Birdi, 2002). They are an important class of materials, intermediate between bulk and molecularly dispersed systems. Colloid particles may be spherical but, in some cases, one dimension can be much larger than the other two (as in a needle-like shape). The size of particles also determines whether they can be seen by the naked eye. Colloids are not visible to the naked eye or under an ordinary optical microscope. The scattering of light can be suitably used to see such colloidal particles (such as dust particles, etc.). Their size then may range from 1() 4 to 1() 7 cm. The units used are as follows ... 

There was, however, one topic which was not included in the first edition, which has undergone substantial development in the intervening years. It could have been foreseen in 1986 a paper was presented at the IEEE Ultrasonics Symposium entitled Ultrasonic pin scanning microscope a new approach to ultrasonic microscopy (Zieniuk and Latuszek 1986,1987). With the advent of atomic force microscopy, it proved possible to combine the nanometre-scale spatial resolution of scanning probe microscopy with the sensitivity to mechanical properties of acoustic microscopy. The technique became known as ultrasonic force microscopy, and has been joined by cognate techniques such as atomic force acoustic microscopy, scanning local-acceleration microscopy, and heterodyne force microscopy. 

Is your order of order of topics Microscopic Macroscopic ... 

Following the comment on macroscopic then microscopic views made above, a suggestion for the minimum topics to cover would be ... 

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