Methods of interpretation

Quite generally, each sensitive spectiometric approach today requires instruments of rapidly escalating cost, and these have to be centralised for numerous users, with resident experts on tap. The experts, however, often prefer to devote themselves to improving the instruments and the methods of interpretation so there is a permanent tension between those who want answers from the instruments and those who have it in their power to deliver those answers. 

A. S. Michaels Simplified Method of Interpreting Kinetic Data in Fixed-Bed Ion Exchange, Industrial and Engineering Chemistry, 44(8) 1922 (1952). 

Mass Spectra and Chemical Structure While there are a number of books (Refs 16, 30, 49 64) already referred to, which deal with details of the instrumentation and techniques of mass spectrometry, there are several concise introductory texts (Refs 10, 21 52) on the interpretation of mass spectra. Still other recent books deal comprehensively with organic structural investigation by mass spectrometry. One of these (Ref 63) discusses fundamentals of ion fragmentation mechanisms, while the others (Refs 7, 15, 20, 28 29) describe mass spectra of various classes of organic compounds. In the alloted space for this article methods of interpretation of mass spectra and structural identification can not be described in depth. An attempt is, therefore, made only to briefly outline the procedures used in this interpretation... 

SP 58 The Radial Distribution Method of Interpretation of Electron Diffraction Photographs of Gas Molecules... 

We have developed a new method of interpretation of the photographs which does not suffer from this disadvantage. This radial distribution method, which is closely related to the method of interpretation of x-ray diffraction data developed by Zemike and Prins3 for the study of the structure of liquids and applied by Warren and Gingrich4 to crystals, consists in the calculation (from... 

The radial distribution method of interpretation is applied to a number of molecules previously investigated, and revised values of interatomic distances and bond angles, obtained by considering the results of this method as well as of the usual visual method, are presented (Tables XI and XII). 

Regardie explains that alchemy promises relief Now, it is with this rigidity of consciousness, with this inflexible crystallized condition of mind, that Alchemy, like modem Psychotherapy, proposes to deal, and moreover, to eradicate. The crystallization of the field of consciousness, with its consequent narrowing of the possibilities of experience, produces a species of living death. The alchemists proposed to kill death. Their object, by the psychological method of interpretation, was to disintegrate this inflexible rigidity of mind (17-18). Moreover, alchemy not only operates as psychotherapy hut also offers a way to enhance the practitioner s spiritual life ... 

The first method of interpreting rate of reaction in terms of partial pressure uses the verbal definition given by equation 1.4-2 for rs. By analogy with equation 4.1-3, we write the rate law (for a reactant i) as... 

The results from VIRS analyses are amenable to several methods of interpretation. In the simplest sense, the spectra can be used as empirical measurements on given rock types or formations, without specific reference to the causative minerals. We have found that superficially identical rock types with different geological contexts can in some cases be effectively characterized and discriminated. The comparison of measured spectra with reference spectra from minerals is the main tool used for identification, and is very effective in cases where samples are monomineralic or dominated by a single infrared active species. The size of the area analyzed is 1 cm in diameter. Computer programs with variable levels of automation can speed the process of identification, but... 

Method II. Some insight into the significance of this constraint can be seen by consideration of other methods of interpreting the data. In Method II the linear region of the [Pg.71]

In this chapter we shall see how the basic parameters can be very easily obtained and interpreted from X-ray rocking curves for relatively simple stractures. We define these as good quality substrates (giving rocking curves near the theoretical width) and up to, say, three layers, each at least 0.5 /an thick. Though these are simple, they nevertheless comprise a large sector of the optoelectronics device production and are certainly realistic cases. The discussion will also illustrate maty important principles. In later chapters we shall develop the methods of interpretation of more complex cases. 

Structure. Simulation of rocking curves is an extremely powerful method of interpretation of complex stractures. In addition, it is veiy valuable for the design of experiments, optimisation of data collection strategy and education of new researchers and operators in high resolution diffractometiy. 

The interpretation of the vibrational spectra of the solid state can be undertaken with several different orders of assumption. These methods of interpretation have been reviewed in detail elsewhere (5—5 and 6—18) and are given only in a brief summary here. 

Frequency of energy deposition in volumes of dimensions similar to DNA and other biological molecules provides a method of interpretation of mechanism of radiation effects. In this method, the assumption is that radiation quality effects are mostly because of the spatial properties of the radiation on a microscopic scale. The database of absolute frequencies of energy depositions in cylindrical targets of dimensions 1-100 nm include ... 

Plate I. Typical high-speed camera photograph. The detonation velocity is 4,850 m./sec. The diagram shows the arrangement of the explosive and camera and the method of interpretation... 

As there are a number of features which are common to all exchange reactions, it is of value to consider these in some detail before discussing the results which have been obtained for the exchange of individual hydrocarbons. Exchange reactions are a unique class of chemical reactions, and attention will be directed to the methods of interpretation of experimental data which are relevant to the study of exchange reactions and to the ways in which these may be classified. 

A different method of interpretation is frequently observed between inspection services and analytical laboratories. This is because inspection services are interested mainly in a yes/no answer to questions, such as Has the animal been treated with anabolics or Does the food commodity contain residues above their MRL , in order to proceed to such action as rejection of the food commodity or removal of the test-positive animals from the farm. On the other hand, laboratories mainly use quality criteria to convert analytical results into yes/no answers. This conversion, however, is often obscured by inherent analytical difficulties including estimation of the impact of systematic and random errors and the way of sampling. 

For a monograph on methods of interpreting kinetic data, see Zuman Patel. Ref. 37. For a review of methods of obtaining kinetic data, see Batt, in Bamford Tipper, Ref. 39, vol. I. 1969, pp. 1-1II. wFor a review of esr to measure kinetics, see Norman Chem. Soc. Rev. 1979, 8, 1-27. 

Manual interpretation of a mass spectrum from basic principles is always important for identification. Although several specialised works have been published on the topic, this type of analysis still requires a lot of experience. Organic chemists are usually familiar with these methods of interpretation since more reaction mechanisms lead to decomposition than those observed in the condensed state. However, because of the very short period of time between ion formation and ion detection (a few microseconds), species that are unstable under normal conditions can be observed. 

An estimation of the degree of brittleness is based on the established presence and character of defects (cracks) in the area of an indentation (Fig. 6.3.2), and there are several known methods of interpreting the best results. 

A new method of interpreting Auger electron spectroscopy (AES) sputter profiles of transition metal carbides and nitrides is proposed. It is shown that the chemical information hidden in the shape of the peaks, and usually neglected in depth profiles, can be successfully extracted by factor analysis (FA). The various carbide and nitride phases of model samples were separated by application of FA to the spectra recorded during AES depth profiles. The different chemical states of carbon, nitrogen and metal were clearly identified. 

A convenient method of interpreting water analysis for the purpose of determining the calcium carbonate solubility equilibrium conditions is embodied in the Langelier equation. The Langelier equation can be used to... 

We shall first simply describe the techniques and the commonly used methods of interpreting and presenting the data. We shall then describe in some detail several of the errors which can, and frequently do arise when using these techniques. All too often the possibility of such errors is overlooked and accordingly we suggest appropriate tests to ensure, as far as possible, that the measured moduli are a true reflection of the material properties. 

The situation becomes more complicated if experiments are carried out in non-isothermal conditions. First of all,many non-isothermal measurement procedures are possible. The selection of a particular method depends on the process characteristics and methods of interpretation. Scanning calorimeters, which measure the quantity of heat released as the ambient temperature is varied linearly. The rate of temperature change can be varied by the experimenter. 

Pauling, L., and L. O. Brockway The Radial Distribution Method of Interpretation of Electron Diffraction Photographs of Gas Molecules. J. Amer. chem. Soc. 57, 2684—2692 (1935). 

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