Measurements empirical

As discussed below, outcomes are often not readily measurable. And even if it is possible to develop measures, empirical data may not be available for the assessment, since a long period of time must elapse before relevant outcomes can be seen. The analysis may have to rely on data relating to intermediate outputs. 

I suggest that we take the acquisition of the total set of species-typical traits (however that is to be measured empirically) to be a maximum specification of the process of development. Anything more exhaustive than species-typical might entail that new species could not evolve. As a minimum bound, I suggest the following evolutionary specification - development is the acquisition of the capacity to reproduce. It will become clear in a moment why I bracket the process of development in this way. First, though, let us consider the sorts of questions about development at multiple levels of evolutionary transition that must be addressed if we are to understand units of evolutionary transition in terms of the propagation of developmental capacities. 

Stress-strain relationship from a concentric-cylinder viscometer Capillary viscometers versus concentric-cylinder viscometers Inherent viscosity at low volume fractions Extent of hydration from intrinsic viscosity measurements Empirical determination of the Mark-Houwink coefficients Variation of viscosity with polymer configuration... 

In the empirical approach the ultrasonic parameters of a range of samples with known properties are measured. Empirical relationships are then established between the property of interest and the measurable ultrasonic parameters. A typical example of this approach is the determination of the sugar content of fruit drinks [18]. A series of sugar solutions of different sugar concentration are prepared and their ultrasonic velocities are measured. This data is then used to make up a calibration curve which relates the sugar content to the... 

Powder flowability is measured empirically as the time for a standardized mass of powder to flow out of a horizontal rotating drum through slits in the drum wall. Drum dimensions and rotational speed are standardized. 

The constant C was initially calculated for the nuclide zqzPu based on the first major resonance at 259 kJ/mol (2.68 eV) (12). For some nuclides, values of C were assumed based on the peak absorption cross section in the major resonance. Others were assumed based on proportionality to the resonance integral (which can be measured empirically without knowing the detailed energy-dependent spectrum). Then, these assumed values for C and also < 2200 were adJusted by trial and error procedures to produce reasonable agreement with experimentally determined tranmutation reactions. Table I shows values presently in use for the parameters 02200 and for both capture and fission for the transuranic nuclides considered in this program. 

Second Measure "empirical data" to describe the material ... 

A representative selection of some thoroughly investigated positive and negative solvatochromic compounds is given in Table 6-1. Further interesting recent examples of solvatochromic dyes can be found in references [311-314], A compilation of 78 solvatochromic compounds that have been proposed as probes for measuring empirically the polarity of solvents is given in reference [10] see also Chapter 7. 

The thermodynamic distribution coefficient requires that equilibrium be maintained between the crystallizing solid and the parent liquid. However, diffusion rates in the solid are so slow that there is negligible interchange between trace elements in the crystal and trace elements in solution except at the surface. The measured empirical distribution coefficients describe an instantaneous or surface partitioning. This requires that a careful distinction be made between a static system, such as a closed pocket or pond from which crystals are growing and a flow-through system in which the growing crystals are continuously bathed in fresh solution. 

The full utility of the functions of state listed above can become apparent only later. For now we note that changes in A and G may be specified by reversible performance of work under isothermal conditions, while changes in E and H are linked to performance of work under conditions of constant entropy. Variations in S may be similarly monitored under conditions of no energy change. As emphasized earlier, the characterization of processes is greatly simplified by Utilizing such path-independent functions. Moreover, since work can always be measured empirically or calculated, these functions of state can be directly evaluated or determined experimentally. 

Fig. 13.39). The accumulation of carefully measured empirical adsorption data and K values for actinide adsorption, have encouraged a number of researchers to estimate SC parameters for... 

Allometry is defined as the change of proportions with increase of size both within a single species and between adults of related groups. The allometric formula relates any measured physical quantity Y to body mass M, with a and b as derived or measured empirical constants. This resulted in the now famihar power law. 

The possibility of measuring empirical temperature in nonequilibrium situations is connected with the fact that the different calibrated thermometers noted above may have very different dimensions and very different relaxation times (the time intervals necessary to achieve practically thermal equilibrium). Then, a reliable empirical temperature in (even nonequilibrium) situations may be obtained if we use a thermometer with a dimension and relaxation time much less than the space and time of the observer s scales of this situation (cf. Sects. 1.1,1.2,2.3). Moreover, the right value of d is assured if, by repeating identical measurement with other thermome-... 

An important property of the air is its speed of sound, denoted by c. For a given pressure and temperature, this is eonstant, and while this can be calculated from more fundamental properties, it is easily measured empirically. A typical value is that a sound wave travels 340 metres in one seeond at room temperature and pressure. By speed of sound we mean the distance travelled by one part of the wave in unit time. Note the similarity with the rope as the speed of sound propagation is eonstant, it doesn t matter what the source does, all waves travel at exactly the same speed. 

Soon after the first NMR measurements empirical systems were devised to reproduce the values given in Table 1. Two somewhat different approaches have been published, one by Grant and Paul and the other by Lindeman and Adams The former has been more often applied and its principal form was subsequently used for many other classes of compounds. Its components are given in Table 2 along with an example for 2,2, 4,4 -tetramethylpentane. 

Using the data measured, empirical formulae for the mooring line force and motion were obtained by the least square method. 

Fig. 26.4. Comparison of BAW s experimental measurements, empirical formulas, and numerical model of bow squat for a Post-Panamax containership in an unrestricted channel (open water).

The mesh contains 57,602 nodes, 255,447 tetrahedra, and 58,458 triangles. A general comparison between squat measurements, empirical formulas, and the numerical model was shown in Fig. 26.4. The numerical modeling match is very good, with a maximum error smaller than 0.12 m. 

Aschenbrenner, M. and Biehl, B. (1994), Improved Safety through Improved Technical Measures , Empirical Studies Regarding Risk Compensation Processes in Relation to Anti-Lock Braking Systems. In R. M. Trimpop and G.J.S. Wilde, Challenges to Accident Prevention The Issue of Risk Compensation Behaviour, Groningen, the Netherlands Styx Publishing. 

This minimal number of cycles can be measured empirically and can be predicted by the above hypotheses. 

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