Maternal nutrition

Reproductive Effects. There is sufficient qualitative evidence to support the conclusion that at high occupational exposure levels lead has significant adverse effects on human reproduction, including increased incidences of spontaneous abortion, miscarriages, and stillbirths. The mechanisms responsible for these effects are unknown at this time, but many factors may contribute to these results. These factors include indirect effects of lead on maternal nutrition or hormonal status before and during pregnancy to... 

Wu G, Bazer FW, Cudd TA, Meininger CJ, Spencer TE Maternal nutrition and fetal development. J Nutr 2004 134 2169-2172. 

Shah, R. S., and Rajalekshmi, R. (1984). Vitamin A status of the newborn in relation to gestational age, body weight, and maternal nutritional status. Am. J. Clin. Nutr. 40, 794-800. 

At the other end of the nutrition scale, obesity in children is becoming a health threat, mainly in developed countries, but increasingly in developing countries (de Onis et al., 2004 Koplan et al., 2005). Poor maternal nutrition has been linked to adverse health outcomes in affected offspring later in life (see section 4.3.3). 

Evidence from epidemiological studies demonstrates that exposures during early life stages can impact susceptibility to diabetes and obesity later in life (Lau Rogers, 2005). In particular, numerous studies have linked poor maternal nutrition with later risk for these adverse health outcomes. The Dutch Hunger Winter was a... 

Pieters B.J., Liess M. (2006) Maternal nutritional state determines the sensitivity of Daphnia magna offspring to short-term Fenvalerate exposure. Aquatic Toxicology 76 268-277. 

Kuna and Kapp (1981) found decreased fetal weight after exposure to 50 ppm and demonstrated that there was only 1 exencephalic rat in a group of 151 pups examined after in utero exposure to 500 ppm benzene. In the same study, of 98 pups examined for skeletal effects after in utero exposures of 500 ppm, only 1 pup had angulated ribs and 2 others had nonsequential ossification of the forefeet. These anomalies were not statistically significant and may have resulted from maternal nutritional stress. 

Miranda, R., Saravia, N. G., Ackerman, R., Murphy, N., Berman, S., and McMurray, D. N. (1983). Effect of maternal nutritional status on immunological substances in human colostrum and milk. Am. ]. Clin. Nutr. 37, 632-640. 

It is known that the zinc in human breast milk is efficiently absorbed because of the presence of factors such as picoHnate and citrate. However, the total quantity of zinc in breast milk is related to maternal nutritional status, and there is a physiological decline in the zinc content of mature milk after about 6 months lactation. Although cases of... 

Various estimates of the selenium intake for Americans have ranged from 0.071 to 0.152 mg selenium/day. The greatest portion of dietary selenium intake occurs from the ingestion of grains and cereals. Selenium is excreted in breast milk, and levels vary with maternal nutritional status. 

Funk MA, Hamlin L, Picciano MF, et al. 1990. Milk selenium of rural African women Influence of maternal nutrition, parity, and length of lactation. Am J Clin Nutr 51(2) 220-224. 

Worthington-Roberts, B.S. (1988). Maternal nutrition and the course and outcome of pregnancy nutrient functions and needs, in Nutrition throughout the Life Cycle, Rodwell Williams, S. and Worthington-Roberts, B.S., Eds., Times Mirror/Mosby College Publishing, St. Louis, 96. 

Da Silva, P, Aitken, RP, Rhind, SM, Racey, PA, and Wallace, JM, Impact of maternal nutrition during pregnancy on pituitary gonadotrophin gene expression and ovarian development in growth-restricted and normally grown late gestation sheep fetuses. Reproduction, 2002. 123(6) 169-111. 

---