Inequity, economic

Revenues are summed from an initial period thronghont the economic lifetime of the investment. The business decision rule is that an investment is profitable when its net present value is positive. If revenues accrue at a constant rate, continuously and forever, the equation becomes simpler. In the inequality I < R/r, an investment is profitable il aimiial revenue, R, divided by the discount rate, r. 

Depression is a serious problem, but drugs are not the answer. In the long run, psychotherapy is both cheaper and more effective, even for very serious levels of depression. Physical exercise and self-help books based on CBT can also be useful, either alone or in combination with therapy. Reducing social and economic inequality would also reduce the incidence of depression. 

In addressing the question of how income inequality is linked to population health, Muntaner and Lynch (1999) identified two strands of causation, thus combining the approaches of Kaplan and Wilkinson. First, they claim that income inequality is associated with a set of social processes and economic policies that systematically under-invest in physical and social infrastructure (e.g. education). Secondly, large disparities in income distribution may have direct consequences on people s perceptions of their relative place in the social environment, which leads to behavioral and cognitive states that influence health. 

LeGrand, J. (1987), Inequalities in health. Some international comparisons , European Economic Review, 31, 182-191. 

Although, as explained in Chapter 9, many optimization problems can be naturally formulated as mixed-integer programming problems, in this chapter we will consider only steady-state nonlinear programming problems in which the variables are continuous. In some cases it may be feasible to use binary variables (on-off) to include or exclude specific stream flows, alternative flowsheet topography, or different parameters. In the economic evaluation of processes, in design, or in control, usually only a few (5-50) variables are decision, or independent, variables amid a multitude of dependent variables (hundreds or thousands). The number of dependent variables in principle (but not necessarily in practice) is equivalent to the number of independent equality constraints plus the active inequality constraints in a process. The number of independent (decision) variables comprises the remaining set of variables whose values are unknown. Introduction into the model of a specification of the value of a variable, such as T = 400°C, is equivalent to the solution of an independent equation and reduces the total number of variables whose values are unknown by one. 

Another extension of this theoretical smdy is the consideration of both an economical and an effective purification strategy for the 4-RDM. The need for such a purification scheme is motivated by the need to have an N- and 5-representable 4-RDM if one wishes to solve the fourth-order modified contracted Schrodinger equation [62, 64, 87]. There have already been several attemps to purify both the 3-RDM and 4-RDM [18, 34, 52]. In particular, a set of inequalities that bound the diagonal and off-diagonal elements of these high-order matrices have been reported [18]. However, the results obtained with this approach within the framework of the fourth-order modified contracted Schrodinger equation (and the second-order contracted Schrodinger equation) were not fully satisfactory because the different spin-blocks of the matrices did not appear to be properly balanced [87, 114]. 

Becker, Gary S., Thomas J. PhUlipson, and Rodrigo R. Soares. 2005. The Quantity and Quality of Life and the Evolution of World Inequality. American Economic Review 95(1) 277-291. 

The chemical industry must rethink the next set of standards and not simply push Responsible Care to the next incremental step. Sustainable development means economic growth that does not deplete irreplaceable resonrces, does not destroy ecological systems, and helps reduce some of the world s gross social inequalities. 

To summarize, two different approaches to international justice, Rawls egalitarian theory and utilitarianism, would both recommend that the world s nations take steps to reduce global health inequalities, but for different reasons. A Rawlsian would hold that the world s nations should provide aid to the least advantaged nations so that these nations can have an opportunity to develop and participate in the community of nations. A utilitarian would hold that world s nations should help to reduce the disease burden of the least advantaged nations to prevent these countries from causing harm to other countries, and to help these countries participate in economic activities that can benefit other countries. 

Social security systems have become less universal, less solidaristic, less protective and more differentiated, contributing to the growth of inequality and economic insecurity. Conditionalities for entitlement to state benefits have been tightened. 

The commodification of traditional knowledge poses problems that also transcend intellectual property considerations since, in indigenous communities, medicinal plants can have cultural, symbolic and ritual values that go beyond a simple medicinal or economic use. Thus, the cultivation of a plant outside its natural habitat and the capture of its medicinal properties into a commercial product can generate mistrust, inequality and betrayal because the loss of the cultural value is not addressed by any monetary compensation. These problems have been exemplified by the development of Hoodia gordo-nii,46 a sacred life force of the South African San, which was turned into a commercial slimming aid .47... 

The specific entropy of a solvent increases with the solute concentration, and if the input solvent is the same, inequality (5.70) yields Ac1 > Ac2, and hence Eq. (5.69) shows that Q < Q2. This means that the solvent flow rate is smaller in the less dissipative operation, and the solvent at the outlet is more concentrated. That is, the operating conditions of solvent determine the less dissipative operation. Whether this optimum is an overall economic optimum will depend mainly on the cost of the technology. 

Microbial adaptation and change Human susceptibility to infection Climate and weather Changing ecosystems Human demographics and behavior Economic development and land use International travel and commerce Technology and industry Breakdown of public health measures Poverty and social inequality War and famine Lack of political will Intent to harm... 

Inequality constraints generally arise from the external constraints discussed in Section 1.2 safety limits, legal limits, market and economic limits, technical limits set by design codes and standards, feed and product specifications, availability of resources, etc. Some examples of inequality constraints might include... 

Hirschman, A. The changing tolerance for inequality in the course of economic development, in A. Hirschman, Essays in Trespassing, 39-58. Cambridge University Press 1982. 

Since it is of interest to have both economic and environmental criteria in optimization, two MOO problems are considered as summarized in Table 10.9. This table includes decision variables and their bounds as well as constraints. The inequality eonstraints exist for the split ratios (decision variables) such that more treated waste is recycled back to the plant rather than sold to the market and more... 

Like the persistence of poverty, discrimination, and rampant inequality, the continuing threat of hazardous working conditions after centuries of economic development represents an indictment of our society. New products are engineered to accomplish astonishing feats of precision and economy, but the methods used to produce them often remain mired in an earlier age, as if the needs of workers, unlike consumers, are beneath consideration. 

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