In Germany

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The tendency to separate is expressed most often by the cloud point, the temperature at which the fuei-alcohol mixture loses its clarity, the first symptom of insolubility. Figure 5.17 gives an example of how the cloud-point temperature changes with the water content for different mixtures of gasoline and methanol. It appears that for a total water content of 500 ppm, that which can be easily observed considering the hydroscopic character of methanol, instability arrives when the temperature approaches 0°C. This situation is unacceptable and is the reason that incorporating methanol in a fuel implies that it be accompanied by a cosolvent. One of the most effective in this domain is tertiary butyl alcohol, TBA. Thus a mixture of 3% methanol and 2% TBA has been used for several years in Germany without noticeable incident. 

Standards Institution) in Germany, DIN (Deutsches Institut fur Normung), in the United States, ANSI (American National Standards Institute). 

The national organizations are often relayed into each profession by a body created and financed by this profession and which undertakes all or part of the work in preparing the standards. In the petroleum industry, this role is carried out in France by the BNPet (Bureau de Normalisation du Petrole) and in Germany by the FAM (Fachausschuss Mineralol-und Brennstoffnormung), in the United Kingdom by the IP (Institute of Petroleum), and in the USA by the ASTM (American Society for Testing and Materials). In the first two cases, the standards are published only by the national organizations (AFNOR and DIN respectively), while the IP and the ASTM also publish their own documents, only some of which are adopted by the BSI and ANSI, respectively. 

The common ore of tin is tinstone or cassiterite. Sn02, found in Cornwall and in Germany and other countries. The price of tin has risen so sharply in recent years that previously disregarded deposits in Cornwall are now being re-examined. Tin is obtained from the tin dioxide, Sn02, by reducing it with coal in a reverbatory furnace ... 

Certain minerals, however, such as sylvite, carnallite, langbeinite, and polyhalite are found in ancientlake and sea beds and form rather extensive deposits from which potassium and its salts can readily be obtained. Potash is mined in Germany, New Mexico, California, Utah, and elsewhere. Large deposits of potash, found at a depth of some 3000 ft in Saskatchewan, promise to be important in coming years. 

November 9,1994 at 4 39 pm, the first atom of the heaviest chemical atom with atomic number 110 was detected at the Gesellschaft fur Schwerionenforschung (GSI) in Darmstadt, in Germany. For the last ten years, this element has been the subject of an intense search by many laboratories world-wide. 

Synthetic oil is feasible and can be produced from coal or natural gas via synthesis gas (a mixture of carbon monoxide and hydrogen obtained from incomplete combustion of coal or natural gas). However, these are themselves nonrenewable resources. Coal conversion was used in Germany during World War II by hydrogenation or. 

In the early 1950s Karl Ziegler then at the Max Planck Institute for Coal Research in Germany was studying the use of aluminum compounds as catalysts for the oligomer ization of ethylene... 

Care ought to be taken in handling acetic acid to avoid spillage or otherwise breathing vapors. Wash any exposed areas with large amounts of water. Once the odor of acetic acid vapors is noticeable, the area should be abandoned immediately. The U.S. threshold limit value for acetic acid is 10 ppm (25 mg/m ). Similar values prevail in Germany (75). 

Economic Aspects. Eigures on U.S. production, imports, and projected demand of chloroacetic acid are Hsted in Table 2 (24). The majority of imported chloroacetic acid is produced in Germany. Western European capacity for chloroacetic acid is in excess of 225,000 metric tons per year. In 1990 the price was 1.25 to 1.36/kg (24,25). 

In the United States butadiene was prepared initially from ethanol and later by cracking four-carbon hydrocarbon streams (see Butadiene). In Germany butadiene was prepared from acetylene via the following steps acetylene — acetaldehyde — 3-hydroxybutyraldehyde — 1,3-butanediol — ... 

Ma.nufa.cture. Butyrolactone is manufactured by dehydrogenation of butanediol. The butyrolactone plant and process in Germany, as described after World War II (179), approximates the processes presendy used. The dehydrogenation was carried out with preheated butanediol vapor in a hydrogen carrier over a supported copper catalyst at 230—250°C. The yield of butyrolactone after purification by distillation was about 90%. 

A Vinyl-2-pyrrolidinone. l-Ethenyl-2-pyrrohdinone [88-12-0] C H NO, A/-vinylpyrrohdinone, was developed by Reppe s laboratory in Germany at the beginning of World War II and patented in 1940 (215). 

L. H. Smith, Sjnthetie Fiber Developments in Germany, Textile Research Institute, New York, 1946, pp. 534—541. 

Processes rendered obsolete by the propylene ammoxidation process (51) include the ethylene cyanohydrin process (52—54) practiced commercially by American Cyanamid and Union Carbide in the United States and by I. G. Farben in Germany. The process involved the production of ethylene cyanohydrin by the base-cataly2ed addition of HCN to ethylene oxide in the liquid phase at about 60°C. A typical base catalyst used in this step was diethylamine. This was followed by liquid-phase or vapor-phase dehydration of the cyanohydrin. The Hquid-phase dehydration was performed at about 200°C using alkah metal or alkaline earth metal salts of organic acids, primarily formates and magnesium carbonate. Vapor-phase dehydration was accomphshed over alumina at about 250°C. 

The 0X0 or hydroformylation reaction was discovered in Germany in 1938 (10) and was first used on a commercial scale by the Enjay Chemical Company (now Exxon) in 1948. By 1990 the total world alcohol capacity based on this general technology was over four million metric tons per year (see Oxo... 

The acquisition of the rights to the viscose process became one of the most profitable investments of aU time. Interest in the new fiber was intense, and growth of production capacity was exponential. By 1907, the Courtauld company was selling aU the artificial sHk it could produce and proceeded to expand into the U.S. market. In 1910 they formed the American Viscose Co. and in 1911 started the first U.S. viscose factory at Marcus Hook. By 1939, Courtaulds had six factories in the United States, seven in the United Kingdom, one in Erance, one in Canada, and joint ventures in Germany and Italy. 

Fluorine was first produced commercially ca 50 years after its discovery. In the intervening period, fluorine chemistry was restricted to the development of various types of electrolytic cells on a laboratory scale. In World War 11, the demand for uranium hexafluoride [7783-81-5] UF, in the United States and United Kingdom, and chlorine trifluoride [7790-91 -2J, CIF, in Germany, led to the development of commercial fluorine-generating cells. The main use of fluorine in the 1990s is in the production of UF for the nuclear power industry (see Nuclearreactors). However, its use in the preparation of some specialty products and in the surface treatment of polymers is growing. 

Cobalt difluoride, used primarily for the manufacture of cobalt trifluoride, CoF, is available from Advance Research Chemicals, Inc., Aldrich Chemicals, and PCR in the United States, Fluorochem in the UK, and Schuhardt in Germany. The 1993 price varied from 60 to 200/kg depending on the quantity and the price of cobalt metal. C0F2 is shipped as a corrosive and toxic material in DOT-approved containers. 

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