Germany, in World War

Uses Flashless, smokeless powder. Was used in Germany in World War I in mixture with ammonium nitrate and paraffin wax as trench-mortar ammunition. As sensitizer in perchlorate explosives, Vn. 

Latex, synthesized in Germany in World War II in several formula variations,was svibstituted for unavailable natural latex in rubbers and also for drying oils and resins in paints. These, plus designed polymer evolutions from the American Riobber Reserve progreim of several chemical species of latexes, educated the householder to the convenience of water system paints which were far better thein earlier, lime-based, water dispersed paints. 

Mannheim between 1921 and 1927. The first commercial plant was built at Leuna in 1927. Twelve plants of this type provided much of the aviation fuel used by Germany in World War II. After the war, the process was further developed by the U.S. Bureau of Mines. The process is essentially one of hydrogenation at high pressures and temperatures, catalyzed by an iron oxide catalyst. In Germany, the catalyst was the red mud waste from the Bayer aluminum process. See also Bergius-Pier. 

Synthetic oil is feasible and can be produced from coal or natural gas via synthesis gas (a mixture of carbon monoxide and hydrogen obtained from incomplete combustion of coal or natural gas). However, these are themselves nonrenewable resources. Coal conversion was used in Germany during World War II by hydrogenation or. 

Fluorine was first produced commercially ca 50 years after its discovery. In the intervening period, fluorine chemistry was restricted to the development of various types of electrolytic cells on a laboratory scale. In World War 11, the demand for uranium hexafluoride [7783-81-5] UF, in the United States and United Kingdom, and chlorine trifluoride [7790-91 -2J, CIF, in Germany, led to the development of commercial fluorine-generating cells. The main use of fluorine in the 1990s is in the production of UF for the nuclear power industry (see Nuclearreactors). However, its use in the preparation of some specialty products and in the surface treatment of polymers is growing. 

U.S. chlorine trifluoride production is several metric tons per year. Most of the product is used in nuclear fuel processing. A large production plant for chlorine trifluoride was operated in Germany during World War II with a reported capacity of 5 t/d (106,107). As of 1993, Air Products and Chemicals, Inc. was the only U.S. producer. The 1992 price was ca 100/kg. 

Imperial Chemical Industries (ICI) operated a coal hydrogenation plant at a pressure of 20 MPa (2900 psi) and a temperature of 400—500°C to produce Hquid hydrocarbon fuel from 1935 to the outbreak of World War II. As many as 12 such plants operated in Germany during World War II to make the country less dependent on petroleum from natural sources but the process was discontinued when hostihties ceased (see Coal conversion PROCESSES,liquefaction). Currentiy the Fisher-Tropsch process is being used at the Sasol plants in South Africa to convert synthesis gas into largely ahphatic hydrocarbons at 10—20 MPa and about 400°C to supply 70% of the fuel needed for transportation. 

Nitrogen Compound Autoxidation. CycHc processes based on the oxidation of hydrazobenzene and dihydrophenazine to give hydrogen peroxide and the corresponding azobenzene—phenazine were developed in the United States and Germany during World War II. However, these processes could not compete economically with the anthrahydroquinone autoxidation process. 

Between 1869 and the beginning of World War I, most of the world s supply of potassium salts came from the Stassfurt deposits in Germany. During World War I, U.S. production, measured as K2O, rose from 1000 metric tons in 1914 to 41,500 t in 1919. Following the end of World War I, U.S. production declined as imports increased. By the time the United States entered World War II, however, production had expanded enough to meet domestic needs. Since then, production has fluctuated, but has fallen below consumption as of the mid-1990s. Total annual U.S. demand peaked at 6.9 X 10 t in 1979 and has leveled off at approximately 5.1 to 5.5 million t. Canada is the principal potash exporter. 

Phenylpropylamines are another stmctural class of receptor agonist. The two most important members are methadone [76-99-3] C2 H2yNO, (8) (17), discovered in Germany during World War II, and propoxyphene [469-62-5] C22H22NO2, (9). 

Sodium was made from amalgam ia Germany duriag World War II (68). The only other commercial appHcation appears to be the Tekkosha process (74—76). In this method, preheated amalgam from a chlor—alkali cell is suppHed as anode to a second cell operating at 220—240°C. This cell has an electrolyte of fused sodium hydroxide, sodium iodide, and sodium cyanide and an iron cathode. Operating conditions are given ia Table 6. 

In all fermented foods, microbes contribute as preservatives, ie, by lowering the pH and producing ethanol, or by making the food more palatable. The dehberate use of yeasts as food in themselves is less common. Small beer, the sediment from beer, has been traditionally used as a vitamin supplement for infants. Beginning in 1910, dried, spent brewers yeast was developed as a food, and Candida utilis was used as a food supplement in Germany during World War II. 

Grain that is usable as food or feed is an expensive substrate for this fermentation process. A cheaper substrate might be some source of cellulose such as wood or agricultural waste. This, however, requires hydrolysis of cellulose to yield glucose. Such a process was used in Germany during World War II to produce yeast as a protein substitute. Another process for the hydrolysis of wood, developed by the U.S. Forest Products Laboratory, Madison, Wisconsin, uses mineral acid as a catalyst. This hydrolysis industry is very large in the former Soviet Union but it is not commercial elsewhere. 

Conventional Transportation Fuels. Synthesis gas produced from coal gasification or from natural gas by partial oxidation or steam reforming can be converted into a variety of transportation fuels, such as gasoline, aviation turbine fuel (see Aviation and other gas turbine fuels), and diesel fuel. A widely known process used for this appHcation is the Eischer-Tropsch process which converts synthesis gas into largely aHphatic hydrocarbons over an iron or cobalt catalyst. The process was operated successfully in Germany during World War II and is being used commercially at the Sasol plants in South Africa. 

Polychlorotrifluoroethylene was the first fluorinated polymer to be produced on an experimental scale and polymers were used in Germany and in the United States early in World War II. PCTFE was used, in particular, in connection with the atomic bomb project in the handling of corrosive materials such as uranium hexafluoride. 

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