History and Effectiveness

The term vaccination originated with the smallpox vaccine. In 1796, Edward Tenner developed an effective method for producing smallpox immunity by inoculating people with material from a cowpox lesion. He named the method vaccination, based on vacca, the Latin word for cow. During the nineteenth century, vaccinia virus, a related but genetically distinct Orthopoxvirus, replaced the cowpox virus in the vaccine (25). 

By early 2004, 15 million doses of smallpox vaccine, Dryvax, were available in the United States. Dryvax, a Wyeth product, is a live virus preparation of vaccinia. The vaccine comes as a lyophilized (freeze-dried) powder in 100 dose vials containing the antibiotics polymyxin B, streptomycin, tetracycline, and neomycin. Fifty percent glycerin, containing a small amount of phenol as a preservative, serves as the diluent for reconstitution (25). Studies have shown that diluting the vaccine in a 1 5 ratio could expand the supply without reducing vaccine efficacy (25). In addition, 200 million antibiotic-free doses are in production. The CDC Web site has detailed directions on how to reconstitute and administer the vaccine at http //www.bt.cdc.gov/agent/smallpox/vaccination/ administration.asp. 

Controlled studies evaluating smallpox vaccine effectiveness are not available. However, studies of exposed household case contacts demonstrated a 91-97% reduction in cases among household contacts with vaccination scars compared to contacts without scars. None of these studies investigated the association between attack rates and time since vaccination or potency of the vaccine, so they may underestimate current levels of protection in the United States (15). 

10 years before exposure, 1% for those vaccinated 11-20 years before exposure, and 11% among those vaccinated more than 20 years before exposure. 52% of those unvaccinated died (25). 

Smallpox vaccination is also effective if given after exposure to the disease. Studies of household contacts in India and Pakistan revealed that postexposure vaccination reduced secondary cases up to 91%. The lowest secondary attack rates occurred in contacts vaccinated less than seven days after exposure. Smallpox cases that occurred were typically less severe (modified smallpox) in household contacts receiving postexposure vaccination (25). 

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Gahl WA, Balog JZ, Kleta R. Nephropathic cystinosis in adults natural history and effects of oral cysteamine therapy. Ann Intern Med 2007 147(4) 242-50. 

BOTANICAL SOURCES OF LYSERGIC ACID AMIDES AND THEIR HISTORIES AND EFFECTS Rye and Other Grasses... 

Richardson K. and Jprgensen B. B. (1996) Eutrophication definition, history, and effects. In Eutrophication in Coastal Marine Ecosystems Coastal and Estuarine Studies. Am. Geophys. Union Publ. (eds. B. B. Jprgensen and... 

Newman WD, Tocher K, Acheson JF. Vigabatrin associated visual field loss a clinical audit to study prevalence, drug history and effects of drug withdrawal. Eye 2002 16(5) 567-71. 

Bloch H. Edward Jenner The history and effects of smallpox, inoculation, and vaccination. Am J Dis Child. 1993 147 772-774. 

Anderson, N.J., Patrick, S.T., Appleby, P.G., Oldfield, F., Rippey, B., Richardson, N., Darley, J. Battarbee, R.W. (1988) An assessment of the use of reservoir sediments in the southern Pennines for reconstructing the history and effects of atmospheric pollution. Research Paper No. 30, Palaeoecology Research Unit, University College London. 

The treatment of equilibrium solvation effects in condensed-phase kmetics on the basis of TST has a long history and the literature on this topic is extensive. As the basic ideas can be found m most physical chemistry textbooks and excellent reviews and monographs on more advanced aspects are available (see, for example, the recent review article by Tnihlar et al [6] and references therein), the following presentation will be brief and far from providing a complete picture. 

The proper choice and appHcation of an insecticide for pest control are predicated upon factors, eg, the life history and ecology of the pest, the relation of pest population to economic damage, the effect of the insecticide on the pest or its plant or animal host, related organisms in the ecosystem, and proper timing of the appHcation to prevent illegal residues at harvest and to avoid damaging of bees and other pollinating insects. 

Results from measurements of time-dependent effects depend on the sample history and experimental conditions and should be considered approximate. For example, the state of an unsheared or undisturbed sample is a function of its previous shear history and the length of time since it underwent shear. The area of a thixotropic loop depends on the shear range covered, the rate of shear acceleration, and the length of time at the highest shear rate. However, measurements of time-dependent behavior can be usehil in evaluating and comparing a number of industrial products and in solving flow problems. 

Inhalation of crystalline or fused vitreous silica dust, usually overlong periods, causes a disabling, progressive pulmonary disease known as silicosis (84). Amorphous siUcas have not been linked to siUcosis (85), but can cause respiratory irritation. The history and poHtics of siUcosis have been reviewed (86). Standards have been set or recommended for occupational exposures (87,88) and review articles on the health effects of siUca are available (83,89). 

In 1912, however, (201) it was discovered that espundia (American mucocutaneous leishmaniasis) can be cured by tartar emetic. It was soon learned that kala-a2ar (visceral leishmaniasis) and oriental sore (a cutaneous form of the disease occurring in the Middle East) also respond to antimonial therapy, especially when compounds of pentavalent antimony are employed. Treatment of leishmaniasis with the latter type of antimonials is safe and effective in over 90% of the cases (202). In 1918, it was demonstrated that tartar emetic is of value in the treatment of schistosomiasis (203). Pentavalent antimonials proved to be less effective. The introduction of antimony compounds for the treatment of parasitic diseases is undoubtedly one of the important milestones in the history of therapeutics (see Antiparasitic agents). 

Seam correlations, measurements of rank and geologic history, interpretation of petroleum (qv) formation with coal deposits, prediction of coke properties, and detection of coal oxidation can be deterrnined from petrographic analysis. Constituents of seams can be observed over considerable distances, permitting the correlation of seam profiles in coal basins. Measurements of vitrinite reflectance within a seam permit mapping of variations in thermal and tectonic histories. Figure 2 indicates the relationship of vitrinite reflectance to maximum temperatures and effective heating time in the seam (11,15). 

Very specific forms of low pH localized corrosion may develop in large high heat-flux WT boilers. Where subsequent analysis work is undertaken, the results usually provide the basis for a traceable chain of cause and effect. An example of such a chain of cause and effect is detailed in an interesting corrosion case history provided by Maringer, Saavedra, Selby, and Haberman, and published by Tall Oaks Publishing, Inc. A synopsis is provided below (with kind permission of Tall Oaks Publishing). 

Hence, it is important to remember that the products, reaction mechanism and the rate of the process may depend on the history and pretreatment of the electrode and that, indeed, the activity of the electrode may change during the timescale of a preparative electrolysis. Certainly, the mechanism and products may depend on the solution conditions and the electrode potential, purely because of the effect of these parameters on the state of the electrode surface. 

Atmospheric aerosols have a direct impact on earth s radiation balance, fog formation and cloud physics, and visibility degradation as well as human health effect[l]. Both natural and anthropogenic sources contribute to the formation of ambient aerosol, which are composed mostly of sulfates, nitrates and ammoniums in either pure or mixed forms[2]. These inorganic salt aerosols are hygroscopic by nature and exhibit the properties of deliquescence and efflorescence in humid air. That is, relative humidity(RH) history and chemical composition determine whether atmospheric aerosols are liquid or solid. Aerosol physical state affects climate and environmental phenomena such as radiative transfer, visibility, and heterogeneous chemistry. Here we present a mathematical model that considers the relative humidity history and chemical composition dependence of deliquescence and efflorescence for describing the dynamic and transport behavior of ambient aerosols[3]. 

Tyler, L.D. et al.. Effect of maturity, cultivar, field history, and the operations of peeling and coring on the geosmin content of Beta vulgaris, J. Agric. Food Chem., 26, 1466, 1978. 

Vanderwolf, C.H., and Leung, L.W.S. Hippocampal rhythmical slow activity A brief history and the effects of entorhinal lesions... 

Hydraulic pressure stimulation (fracturing) of oil and gas wells has now accumulated 40 years of history and experience. The actual practice and application of this technique supports a multi-billion dollar service industry which annually utilizes in excess of 130 million pounds of chemical additives. This chapter will describe the fracturing fluids that are used and some of the additives, their purpose, and the principles that make their use effective as well as necessary. Information presented will update a body of review literature that covers the prior years of fracturing(1). Chemicals are added for specific purposes which are identifiable by their descriptive title. Veatch02) has compiled a thorough general list of the additives added to fracturing fluids. 

One study has reported effects on neurobehavioral function in lead-exposed workers at mean PbB levels of 50 pg/dL (Williamson and Teo 1986). Neurobehavioral function was measured using tests that are based on information processing theory in 59 lead workers and 59 controls matched for age, type of job, time on the job, education level, smoking history, and alcohol consumption. Statistically significant decreases in the lead-exposed workers were seen for critical flicker fusion reaction, simple reaction time, tracking speeds, hand steadiness tests, and sensory store memory. Sensory store memory speed showed a low but statistically significant correlation with PbB concentrations. Measurements of neurobehavioral function seemed well chosen, and repeated measures with associated appropriate statistics were used. 

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