Beta vulgaris

Sucrose, commonly known as sugar, has been used as a natural sweetening agent for almost 4000 years. It is isolated from sugarbeet beta vulgaris) in Europe and from sugarcane (Saccharum officinarum) in the tropics. Its total world production in 1994—1995 was 116 million metric tons. 

Betalaines. In 1968, the term betalaines was used to describe collectively two groups of plant pigments the red betacyanins and the yellow betaxanthins. The red and yellow dyes found in beets. Beta vulgaris, fall into this category. An interesting history has been written about these dyes (133). 

Bohm, H. and Mack, G., Betaxanthin formation and free amino acids in hairy roots of Beta vulgaris var. lutea depending on nutrient medium and glutamate or glutamine feeding. Phytochemistry 65, 1361, 2004. 

Hempel, J. and Bohm, H., Betaxanthin pattern of hairy roots from Beta vulgaris var. lutea and its alteration by feeding of amino acids. Phytochemistry, 44, 847, 1997. 

Stintzing, F.C., Schieber, A., and Carle, R., Identification of betalains from yellow beet (Beta vulgaris L.) and cactus pear (Opuntia ficus-indica (L.) Mill.) by high-performance liquid chromatography-electrospray ionization mass spectrometry, J. Agric. Food Chem., 50, 2302, 2002. 

Wybraniec, S., Formation of decarboxylated hetacyanins in heated pnrified hetacyanin fractions from red beet root (Beta vulgaris L.) monitored by LC-MS/MS, J. Agric. Food Ghent., 53, 3483, 2005. 

Mukundan, U. et al., pH-mediated release of betalains from transformed root cultures of Beta vulgaris L., Appl. Microbiol. BiotechnoL, 50, 241, 1998. 

Im, J.S., Parkin, K.L., and Von Elbe, J.H., Endogenous polyphenoloxidase activity associated with the black ring defect in canned beet (Beta vulgaris L.) root slices, J. Food ScL, 55, 1042, 1059, 1990. 

As for anthocyanins, betalains are found in vacuoles and cytosols of plant cells. From the various natural sources of betalains, beetroot (Beta vulgaris) and prickly pear cactus (Opuntia ficus indica) are the only edible sources of these compounds. In the food industry, betalains are less commonly used as natural colorants from plant sources than anthocyanins and carotenoids, probably related to their more restricted distribution in nature. To date, red beetroot is the only betalain source exploited for use as a natural food coloring agent. The major betalain in red beetroot is betanin (or betanidin 5-0-P-glucoside). Prickly pear fruits contain mainly (purple-red) betanin and (yellow-orange) indicaxanthin and the color of these fruits is directly related to the betanin-to-indicaxanthin ratio (99 to 1, 1 to 8, and 2 to 1, respectively in white, yellow, and red fruits)." ... 

Alard, D. et al., Neobetanin Isolation and identihcation from Beta vulgaris. Phytochemistry, 24, 2383, 1985. 

Kujala, T., Loponen, J., and Pihlaja, K., Betalains and phenolics in red beetroot Beta vulgaris) peel extracts extraction and characterisation. Ztschr. Naturforsch. C/J. Biosci., 56, 343, 2001. 

Gandla-Herrero, F., Carcla-Carmona, R, and Escribano, J., Fluorescent pigments new perspectives in betalain research and applications, Food Res. Int, 38, 879, 2005. Piattelh, M., Minale, L., and Prota, G., Pigments of Centrospermae. III. Betaxanthins from Beta vulgaris L., Phytochemistry, A, 121, 1965. 

Tyler, L.D. et al.. Effect of maturity, cultivar, field history, and the operations of peeling and coring on the geosmin content of Beta vulgaris, J. Agric. Food Chem., 26, 1466, 1978. 

Pyo, Y.H. et al.. Antioxidant and phenolic compounds of Swiss chard (Beta vulgaris subspecies cycla) extracts. Food Chem., 85, 19, 2004. 

Martmez-Parra, J. and Munoz, R., An approach to the characterization of betanine oxidation catalyzed by horseradish peroxidase, J. Agric. Food Chem., 45, 2984, 1997. Martmez-Parra, J. and Munoz, R., Characterization of betacyanin oxidation catalyzed by a peroxidase from Beta vulgaris L. roots, J. Agric. Food Chem., 49, 4064, 2001. Ashie, l.N.A. Simpson, B.K., and Smith, J.P., Mechanisms for controlling enzymatic reactions in foods, Crit. Rev. Food Sci. Nutr., 36, 1, 1996. 

Herbach, K.M., Stintzing, E.C., and Carle, R., Impact of thermal treatment on color and pigment pattern of red beet Beta vulgaris L.) preparations, J. Food ScL, 69, C491, 2004. 

Jrratan, T. and Liu, R.H., Antioxidant activity of processed table beets Beta vulgaris var. conditiva) and green beans Phaseolus vulgaris L.), J. Agric. Food Chem., 52, 2659, 2004. 

Pedreno, M.A. and Escribano, J., Correlation between antiradical activity and stability of betanine from Beta vulgaris L roots under different pH, temperature and light conditions, J. Sci. Food Agric., 81, 627, 2001. 

Lee, C.-H. et al., Betalains, phase II enzyme-indncing components from red beetroot (Beta vulgaris L.) extracts, Nutr. Cancer, 53, 91, 2005. 

Martinez, L. et al.. Comparative effect of red yeast rice Monascus purpureas), red beet root (Beta vulgaris) and betanin (E-162) on colour and consumer acceptability of fresh pork sausages packaged in a modified atmosphere, J. Sci. Food Agric., 86, 500, 2006. 

Amon, D.E., Copper enzymes in isolated chloroplast. Polyphenoloxidase in Beta vulgaris. Plant Physiol., 24, 1, 1949. 

Kujala, T.S. et al., Phenolics and betacyanins in red beetroot (Beta vulgaris) root distribution and effect of cold storage on the content of total phenolics and three individual compounds, J. Agric. Food Chem., 48, 5338, 2000. 

Nilsson, T., Studies into the pigments in beetroot Beta vulgaris L. vulgaris var. rubra L.), Lantbrukshog. Ann., 36, 179, 1970. 

Girod, R-A. and Zryd, J.-R, Secondary metabolism in cultured red beet Beta vulgaris L.) cells Differential regulation of betaxanthin and betacyanin biosynthesis. Plant Cell Tiss. Org. Cult., 25, 1, 1991. 

Kujala, T.S. et al., Betalain and phenolic compositions of four beetroot Beta vulgaris) cultivars. Fur. Food Res. TechnoL, 214, 505, 2002. 

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