Fungi, Mosses, and Lichens

Concentrations of lead were highest in specimens collected near metal smelters, lead mines, industrial areas, and urban locations. Lead concentrations were 9-13 times greater in a lichen collected in Washington, DC, in 1970 than in the same species collected 34 years earlier. 

Elevated lead contents were recorded in various species of plants from the vicinity of metal smelters, roadsides, soils heavily contaminated with lead, natural ore deposits, and lead recycling factories. Bioavailability of lead in soils to plants is limited, but is enhanced by reduced soil pH, reduced content of organic matter and inorganic colloids, reduced iron oxide and phosphorus content, and increased amounts of lead in soils. Lead, when available, becomes associated with plants by way of active transport through roots and by absorption of lead that adheres to foliage. Lead concentrations were always higher in the older parts of plants than in shoots or flowers. 

The use of terrestrial invertebrates as sentinel organisms has been suggested for monitoring lead. Some species of spiders, for example, contain lead body burdens that correlated with that in lichen used to monitor atmospheric lead. Similarly, the woodlouse seems to reflect lead concentrations in adjacent soil or leaf litter. 

Nationwide, there has been a significant decline in lead concentrations of whole freshwater fish from 1976-77 to 1984, continuing a decrease that became evident in 1978-79. Nationwide monitoring of freshwater fishes conducted periodically by the U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service showed that whole body lead burdens were highest for Atlantic coast streams, the Great Lakes drainage, the Mississippi River system, the Columbia Etiver 

In general, freshwater algae, invertebrates, and fish had comparatively elevated lead concentrations when collected near 

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Fumaric acid, a metabolite of many fungi, lichens moss and some plants, and mainly used as the diacid component in alkyd resins, is produced commercially to some extent by fermentation of glucose in Rhizopus arrhizus yet productivity improvements appear essential for the product to be an option for replacing its petrochemical production by catalytic isomerization of maleic acid. 

Lichens are symbiotic associations of algae and fungi characterized by low growth rates and nutrient requirements that enable them to play the role of pioneer vegetation in the colonization of fresh rocks (Chapin, 1980). Bryophytes, which include mosses and liverworts, are small green land plants that lack vascular tissues, leaves, stems, and roots they live only in moist habitats. Both lichens and bryophytes were early colonizers of the land, and there has been considerable interest in and discussion of the role of lichens... 

All the data and hypotheses reviewed above, and many more not mentioned, are in conflict with a simple fact (Foissner, 2006, 2008 Fig 5.2 see also Chapters 9-12) mushrooms, mosses, ferns, lichens and horsetails have restricted distributions although their distribution means (spores) are produced in masses and in the size of most protists (< 100 pm). Further, hundreds of bacterial and fungal pests had regional or continental distribution before they were dispersed by humans. This is why I believe that, for example, air currents and the size of the organisms have little influence on their distribution. This has been supported by a study on microscopic fungi (Taylor et al., 2006). Actually, we do not know the amount of stable populations established by dispersal in the active state. Based on the data discussed above, step-by-step distribution of both, in active and cystic states, may play a significant role in at least the euryoecious species and if many similar habitats occur in a certain region. 

The quinones are widely distributed in nature, and about 1200 different quinones have been observed in bacteria, in all plant phyla except mosses, and in animal phyla like echinoderms (sea urchin) and arthropods (insects) (53,54). They may occur in all parts of a plant however, a large propcntion are present in roots, heartwood and bark. The quinones range in color from yellow, through red, purple to almost black. They make relatively little contribution to color in higher plants their color is perhaps most conspicuous in some fungi, lichen, and insects (Coccidae). 

Most lichens, except gelatinous forms, accumulate less water during saturation than other cryptogamic plants (fungi, algae, and mosses). Water accumulation in the thallus is very uneven. Different parts of the thallus and its layers contain different amounts of water. There are no data about the water content of mycobiont and phycobiont cytoplasm, but it is considered to be small. 

The use of lower plants as biomonitors has recently been detailed. Garty (1993) has extensively reviewed the use of lichens as biomonitors the use of fungi has been reviewed by Mejstfik and Lepsova (1993) and by Wondratschek and Rfider (1993) and mosses as biomonitors have been discussed by Steinnes (1993) and by Brtining and Kreeb (1993) the effects of heavy metals on bryophytes has been reviewed by Tyler (1990). 

Detailed consideration is given to plants involved in the biomonitoring of terrestrial heavy metal pollution, ranging from lichens, fungi, and mosses to higher plants. In addition in-depth analysis of criteria for the selection of future monitoring species indicates new trends. 

In addition to lichens and mosses being used as bioindicators there is also a number of publications reporting the use of fungi and mushrooms. 

Iron film Lithobiontic coatings Nitrate crust Composed primarily of iron oxides or oxyhydroxides Organic remains form the rock coating, for example lichens, moss, fungi, cyanobacteria, algae Potassium and calcium nitrate coatings on rocks, often in caves and rock shelters in limestone areas... 

F. forms monoclinic, prismatic needles and is found as a metabolite in Iceland moss, fungi, lichens and some plants, e. g., Fumaria officinalis. 

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