Fetal-maternal environment

OUTSIDE THE FETAL-MATERNAL ENVIRONMENT INDUSTRIAL POLLUTION... 

Exposure, Intake, and Effects of Toxic and Essential Elements Assessment of steroid hormone disruption in placenta as indicator tissue for monitoring fetal and maternal environment. Biomonitoring of metals is included with evaluation of dietary metal intake (European Commission 2004). 

The maternal glucose concentration is extremely critical in determining fetal glucose supply, and a normal fetal endocrine environment is important in modulating the way the fetus uses this supply of glucose. The endocrine milieu of the fetus provides an anabolic environment within which the fetus can produce complex macromolecules from simpler precursors. Although the placenta is essentially impermeable to maternal insulin, the fetal pancreas releases insulin in response to increases in fetal blood glucose concentration. 

Other factors within the maternal environment may also result in conflicts with and significant disruptions of fetal development, among them ... 

The physiology and biochemistry of the human neuroendocrine system is complex, highly variable between individuals, and subject to impacts from the maternal environment. The evidence that the activity of the maternal HPA-axis influences the development of the fetal brain is clear and expected. The fetus does not develop in a bubble that isolates it from the mother the dynamics of maternal stress physiology, whether internally driven or driven by the outside world, must be a factor in the development of the fetal brain and nervous system. 

Zhu, M., E.F. Fitzgerald, K.H. Gelberg, S. Lin, and C. Druschel. 2010. Maternal low-level lead exposure and fetal growth. Environ. Health Perspect. 118(10) 1471-1475. 

Hayashi, M. 1983. Lead toxicity in the pregnant rat. I. The effect of high-level lead on d-aminolevulinic acid dehydratase activity in maternal and fetal blood or tissues. Environ. Res. 30 152-160. 

Bush B, Snow J, Koblintz R. 1984. Polychlorobiphenyl (PCB) congeners, p,p -DDE, and hexachlorobenzene in maternal and fetal cord blood from mothers in upstate New York. Arch Environ Contain Toxicol 13(5) 517-527. 

Haworth, S., Lawlor, T., Mortelmans, K., Speck, W. Zeiger, E. (1983) Salmonella mutagenicity test results for 250 chemicals. Environ. Mutag., 5 (Suppl. 1), 3-142 Kilpatrick, S.J. Laros, R.K. (1999) Maternal hematologic disorders. In Creasy, R.K. Resnik, R., q6.. Maternal-fetal Medicine, Philadelphia, W.B. Saunders, pp. 935-963 Lewis, R.J., Jr (1993) Hawley s Condensed Chemical Dictionary, 12th Ed., New York, Van Nostrand Reinhold, p. 55... 

Creason JP, Svendsgaard D, Bumgarner J, et al. 1976. Maternal-fetal tissue levels of 16 trace elements in 8 selected continental United States communities. Proc Univ MO Annu Conf Trace Subst Environ Health. 10 53-62. 

Dejmek J, Selevan SG, Benes I, Solansky I, Sram RJ (1999) Fetal growth and maternal exposure to particulate matter during pregnancy. Environ Health Perspect, 107(6) 475-480. 

Longnecker MP, Klebanoff MA, Dunson DB, Guo X, Chen Z, Zhou H, Brock JN (2005) Maternal serum levels of DDT metabolite DDE in relation to fetal loss in previous pregnancy. Environ Res, 97(2) 127-133. 

Ning H, Kado NY, Kuzmicky PA, et al. 1991. Benzene-induced micronuclei formation in mouse fetal liver blood, peripheral blood, and maternal bone marrow cells. Environ Mol Mutagen 18(1) 1-5. 

Bergonzi, R., Specchia, C., Dinolfo, M., Tonunasi, C., de Pahna, G., Frasca, T., Apostoli, P. Persistent organochlorine compounds in fetal and maternal tissues evaluation of their potential influence on several indicators of fetal growth and health. Total. Environ. 409, 2888-2893 (2011)... 

Liu, S., Krewski, D., Shi, Y., Chen, Y., Burnett, R.T. (2007). Association between maternal exposure to ambient air pollutants during pregnancy and fetal growth restriction. J. Expo. Sci. Environ. Epidemiol. 17 426-32. 

Varma, D.R., Guest, L, Smith, S., Mulay, S. (1990). Dissociation between maternal and fetal toxicity of methyl isocyanate in mice and rats. J. Toxicol. Environ. Health 30 1-14. 

Figure 19-1 Classification of placenta shape. Discoid/hemichorial a single placenta is formed, discoid in shape (e.g., primates, rabbits, rodents, humans). Attachment of the primate placenta is bidiscoid and rats and mice have three trophoblastic layers between the maternal and fetal environment. Diffuse/epitheliochorial almost entire surface of the allantochorion is involved in formation of the placenta (e.g., horses, pigs). Zonary/endotheliocorial placenta has complete or incomplete bands of tissue surrounding the fetus (e.g., dogs, cats, seals, bears, and elephants). Cotyledonary multiple discrete areas of attachment called cotyledons are formed by interaction of patches of allantochorion with endometrium. This type of placentation is observed in ruminants.

Grandjean P, Weihe P, Jorgensen PJ, et al. 1992. Impact of maternal seafood diet on fetal exposure to mercury, selenium, and lead. Arch Environ Health 47(3) 185-195. 

Lee JH, Han DH. 1995. Maternal and fetal toxicity of methylmercuric chloride administered to pregnant Fischer 344 rats. J Toxicol Environ Health 45(4) 415-425. 

Bakke JP, Mirsalis JC. 1984. Measurement of unscheduled DNA synthesis (UDS) in fetal and maternal liver following in vivo exposure to genotoxic agents [abstract]. Environ Mutagen 6 446. 

Takagi Y, Aburada S, Hashimoto K, et al. 1986. Transfer and distribution of accumulated ( C)polychlorinated biphenyls from maternal to fetal and suckling rats. Arch Environ Contam Toxicol 15 709-715. 

Gilbert, S.G., T.M. Burbacher, and D.C. Rice. 1993. Effects of in utero methylmercury exposure on a spatial delayed alternation task in monkeys. Toxicol. Appl. Pharmacol. 123(1) 130-6. Grandjean, P., P. Weihe, P.J. Jorgensen, T. Clarkson, E. Cemichiari, and T. Videro. 1992. Impact of maternal seafood diet on fetal exposure to mercury, selenium, and lead. Arch. Environ. Health 47(3) 185-195. 

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