Emotional expression

Other nootropic agents in some stage of clinical development include nebracetam (9), nefinacetam (10), and BMY 21502 (11). Nebracetam, an aminomethyl pyrrolidinone derivative, is expected to be approved in Japan in 1994 (73). In clinical studies involving patients having cerebrovascular or senile dementia of the Alzheimer s type, clinical symptoms such as spontaneous or emotional expression were enhanced in up to 71% of cases. Long-term treatment using nebracetam in patients with cerebral infarction also afforded marked improvement in most cases with few side effects (74). A review of this compound has beenpubUshed (75). 

The limbic multimodal association area is partially located in each of the temporal, parietal and frontal lobes. It is concerned with emotional expression and memory storage. Although these functions appear to be unrelated, it is important to note that the emotional impact of an event is a major determinant of whether the event is remembered. Once again, it is important to remember that, although each of these multimodal association areas has its own characteristic function, all are highly interconnected and work together toward an end result. 

The first of these vulnerabilities is called lifestyle imbalance. Lifestyle imbalances occur when a person spends too much time in one life domain, such as working too much without a balance of recreation, or having too much free time and not enough structure. There are several life activities that seem important for lifestyle balance, including eating healthy and exercising, spirituality, intellectual endeavors, healthy emotional expression, social activities and relationships,... 

The criterion that many theorists seem loath to accept is that of a distinct affect (e.g., Lewis Michalson, 1983, pp. 30f). Yet this may be the most characteristic facet of emotion. When we experience an affect but do not exhibit any emotional expression, visceral changes or overt action, are we not still experiencing an emotion Furthermore, affects can be rated reliably in other primates, thus permitting cross-species comparison (Goodall, 1987). Admit-... 

Figure 2. Simple model of the elicitation of spontaneous emotional expressions.

There is obviously more to an emotion than this simple definition conveys. Other common—but not omnipresent—characteristics are a specific behavioral tendency, a specific emotional expression, and a specific pattern of visceral adjustments. But because an emotion may lack one or more of these facets, they cannot be regarded as part of the strict definition of emotion, but only as descriptive of the emotion complex. 

Having attacked the thinking of others on emotion, I am obligated to suggest my own list of basic emotions. Since I prefer to think primarily in terms of affects, I like to use affective terms for the emotions. Each emotional modality in such a list should be species-wide and hence adaptive, and include a basic, distinct affect and adaptive (if nonspecific) overt behavioral tendency. The list is also based on evidence for specific neural mediation, presence in other primates, specific situational elicitors, specific emotional expressions, and specific visceral adjustments, but space does not permit systematic review of these data. Taken together, the list is intended to comprise the inventory of whole-body behaviors exhibited by normal adults throughout the world. For each emotional modality, I will mention some of its characteristic features. 

There also are lawlike interactions between particular emotions, such as the inhibition of interest by fear, or the enhancement of sexual arousal by love. And of course we may experience blends of affects as we contemplate or execute a course of action (see McDougall, 1923 on blends). It is well known to ethologists that blends of emotional expressions can occur in humans and animals (e.g., Lorenz, 1953, cited in Eibl-Eibesfeldt, 1989). 

Shimoda, K., Argyle, M., Ricci Bitti, P. (1978). The intercultural recognition of emotional expressions by three national racial groups English, Italian and Japanese. European Journal of Social Psychology, 8, 169-179. 

There is an unfortunate propensity for emotional expression in management to be seen largely in negative terms. The very use of the phrase emotional resilience illustrates this point. Emotions are seen as having to be endured and survived. 

Bandler, R. and Keay, K. A. Columnar organization in the midbrain periaqueductal gray and the integration of emotional expression, Prog. Brain Res. 1996, 107, 285-300. 

How does color affect the emotion expressed by a line or lines ... 

Bouhuys, A.L., Bloem, G.M., and Groothuis. T.G.G. (1995). Induction of depressed and elated mood by music influences the perception of facial emotional expressions in healthy subjects. Journal of Affective Disorders, 33, 215-226. 

Perhaps most important, Chemical Risk provided the basis for a call for scientific collective action and increased public awareness. Future Nobel laureate Joshua Lederberg (1969) noted in one of his regular Science and Man columns that we [biologists] all have a basic responsibility to go beyond an emotional expression of concern to use it to energize the search for authentic scientific measures of potential hazards and for means to neutralize them. We have a great deal of taxing work ahead in trying to set up scientifically valid and politically useful criteria from laboratory studies for these elusive but all-important hazards. ... 

Biopsychiatric treatments are deemed effective when the physician and/or the patient prefers a state of diminished brain function, with its narrowed or shallower range of mental capacity or emotional expression. If the drugged individual reports feeling more effective and... 

A new use of depictions has appeared in email. Seemingly inspired by smiley faces, and probably because it is inherently more casual than other written communication, computer vernacular has added signs for the emotional expression normally conveyed in face-to-face communication by intonation and gesture. These signs combine symbols found on keyboards to denote facial expressions, usually turned 90 degrees, such as ) or ). 

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