Stem cells, embryonic

E. Robertson, in E. Robertson, ed., Teratocarcinomas and Embryonic Stem Cells A Practical Approach, IRL Press, Oxford, 1987, p. 71. 

The blastocyst is an early embryonic stage in mammalian development. Murine blastocysts can be harvested at day 3.5 p.c. Their inner cell mass contains embryonic stem cells. Multiple murine embryonic stem cell lines have been established. Embryonic stem cells carrying genetically engineered mutations are injected into blastocysts, which are subsequently implanted into pseudopregnant foster mothers. 

Finally, lentiviral vectors have been shown to transduce human embryonic stem cells. Therefore, this type of gene-therapy vector might also be used in stem cell-based therapies. 

In the private and the public sectors, projects are ongoing in which random mutations are generated in murine embryonic stem cells on a large scale (ES cell libraries). Tagged and presumably inactivated genes are easily identified by sequencing. These stem cells can be used to generate the respective knockout mice. 

Brustle O, Jones KN, Learish RD, Karram K, Choudhary K, Wiestler OD, Duncan ID, McKay RD (1999) Embryonic stem cell-derived glial precursors a source of myelinating transplants. Science 285 754-756... 

Kim E, Clark AL, Kiss A, Hahn JW, Wesselschmidt R, Coscia CJ, Belcheva MM (2006) Mu and kappa opioids induce the differentiation of embryonic stem cells to neural progenitors. J Biol Chem 281 33749-33760... 

Matsui, Y Zsebo, K. M and Hogan, B. L. M. (1992). Derivation of pluripotential embryonic stem cells from murine primordial germ cells in culture. Cell 70 841-847. 

Zhu, L. et al. (2007) DNA damage induced by multiwalled carbon nanotubes in mouse embryonic stem cells. Nano Letters Issues, 7 (12), 3592-3597. 

Volume 365. Differentiation of Embryonic Stem Cells Edited by Paul M. Wassauman and Gordon M. Keller... 

Fig. 13 Phase contrast microscope images of mouse embryonic stem cells in the PMBV/PVA hydrogel left) and on TCPS (right)...

Zhang E, Li X, Zhang S et al (2005) Cell cycle synchronization of embryonic stem cells effect of serum deprivation on the differentiation of embryonic bodies in vitro. Biochem Biophys Res Commun 333 1171-1177... 

Knowledge gained from cell adhesion studies with SAMs has been used to develop culture substrates with the appropriate cell adhesion glycoproteins for different types of cells [7-10], Stem cells, capable of self-renewal and differentiation into multiple cell types, are found in embryonic and adult tissues. Pluripotent stem cells, like embryonic stem cells and induced pluripotent stem cells, have been developed in vitro. These cells are expected to provide cell sources for regenerative medicine. Various culture conditions have been developed to enable expansion of these cells without loss of their multi- and pluripotency and to induce differentiation into viable cells with specific functions. 

Cell transplantation has shown promise as a method for treating serious diseases. Various kinds of pluripotent stem cells have been developed or identified, including embryonic stem cells (ESCs), induced pluripotent stem cells (iPSCs), and mesenchymal stem cells (MSCs). Moreover, the differentiation of stem cells to functional cells has been extensively studied. Previous studies have demonstrated that the transplantation of islet of Langerhans cells (islets) could successfully treat type 1 diabetes. Islets are insulin-secreting cells found in the pancreas. Over 200 patients... 

Xu C, Inokuma MS, Denham J, Golds K, Kundu P, Gold JD, Carpenter MK (2001) Feeder-free growth of undifferentiated human embryonic stem cells. Nat Biotechnol 19 971-974... 

Yamazoe H, Iwata H (2005) Cell microarray for screening feeder cells for differentiation of embryonic stem cells. J Biosci Bioeng 100 292-296... 

Derda R, Li L, Omer BP, Lewis RL, Thomson JA, Kiessling LL (2007) Defined substrates for human embryonic stem cell growth identified from surface arrays. ACS Chem Biol 2 347-55... 

Ronaghi M, Erceg S, Moreno-Manzano V, Stojkovic M (2010) Challenges of stem cell therapy for spinal cord injury Human embryonic stem cells, endogenous neural stem cells, or induced pluripotent stem cells Stem Cells 28 93-99... 

Such cells are often classified on the basis of their original source as either embryonic or adult stem cells. As the name suggests, embryonic stem cells are derived from the early embryo, whereas adult stem cells are present in various tissues of the adult species. Much of the earlier work on embryonic stem cells was conducted using mouse embryos. Human embryonic stem cells were first isolated and cultured in the laboratory in 1998. Research on adult stem cells spans some four decades, with the discovery during the 1960s of haematopoietic stem cells in the bone marrow (Chapter 10). However, the exact distribution profile, role and ability to manipulate adult stem cells (particularly those outside of the bone marrow) are subjects of intense current research, and for which more questions remain than are answered. 

Embryonic stem cells are derived from pre-implant-stage human embryos, usually at the blastocyst stage (the blastocyst is a thin-walled hollow structure containing a cluster of cells, known as the inner cell mass, from which the embryo arises). These embryos are invariably ones initially generated as part of in vitro fertilization procedures but which are destined to be discarded, either due to poor quality or because they are in excess to requirement. There are an estimated 400 000 in vitro fertilization-produced embryos in frozen storage in the USA alone, of which some 2.8 per cent are likely to be discarded. 

Culture of human embryonic stem cells starts with the recovery of the blastocyst s inner cell mass (Figure 14.17). One common recovery procedure is termed immunosurgery . The process... 

Figure 14.17 Overview of the generation and culture of human embryonic stem cells. IVF in vitro fertilization. Refer to text for further details...

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