Due to Disease

Malnutrition may also result from disease of the gastrointestinal tract. Among the malabsorption syndromes, carbohydrate malabsorption due to inborn errors of metabolism, the dumping syndrome resulting from gastrectomy, and steatorrhea will be discussed [136]. 

Food contains one polysaccharide (starch) and three disaccharides (maltose, sucrose, and lactose). Salivary and pancreatic amylase digests starch to yield maltose and sucrose, and lactose to yield maltose and sucrose. Sucrose, maltose, and lactose are split by invertase, maltase, and lactase, respectively. The products of the disaccharidase reactions are fructose, glucose, and galactose. Whenever amylase or one of the disacchari-dases is absent from the intestinal content, the undigested sugars pass in the lower part of the intestinal tract and are fermented by the bacterial flora. As a result, lactic acid and volatile acids are formed and stimulate peristalsis and fluid secretion by the intestinal mucosa. Liquid foaming acid and foul-smelling feces are emitted. Amylase may be absent in pancreatic disease. Inborn errors characterized by the absence of intestinal lactase, maltase, and invertase have been described. 

The injection of 50% glucose in the pocket of these animals suggests that the cardiovascular symptoms occurr in two stages, described as primary and secondary. The primary event starts with a decrease in mesenteric resistance, followed by an increase in superior mesenteric artery flow, splanchnic pooling of blood, and increased portal venous pressure. The secondary events probably result from a compensatory reaction to the changes in the blood flow of the mesenteric bed. The reaction involves increased heart rate, peripheral resistance, and blood flow. Consequently, splanchnic pooling further increases, and cardiac output and blood flow to the brain decrease. 

Whether an increase in bradykinin secretion is responsible for the decreased resistance to flow in the mesenteric artery remains to be established. 

These experimentations further suggest that it is not likely to be the osmotic pressure of the solution injected into the jejunum that induces the dumping syndrome, but rather the distension of the intestinal loop by the sudden dumping of large volumes of fluid in it. 

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Photodiode arrays have been used as retinal implants [684]. These arrays of p-i-n diodes are fabricated on a thin titanium layer bonded to a glass plate. The total thickness of this flexible structure is 1.5 yum. The microphotodiode array (MPDA) is used to replace photoreceptors (rods and cones) that have become defective due to disease. 

On a rubber plantation, the tree population per acre. The initial stand is sufficient to allow for losses due to disease and provides a final stand of 90-100 trees per acre. 

When the mechanisms restricting bacterial colonization in the upper gut fail, due to disease or dysfunction, bacterial overgrowth develops. The segmental distribution may be gastric, intestinal or both depending on the type of failure. The consequences for the host vary from none to life-threatening complications, caused by severe water and electrolyte deficiencies and septic manifestations. 

Up to now odoriferous changes due to disease have been investigated in humans almost entirely from the medical perspective without any evolutionary perspective. This could be due to the fact that most researchers live in developed countries where numerous life threatening infections have been almost eradicated and thus can be supposed to be something unusual. However, this is definitely not true in the rest of the world and similarly over human history. Infections and parasites were the main... 

Annual losses of production due to disease and pest were estimated by Hale (20) in 1953 as follows capsid insects 70,000 tons, swollen shoot 50,000 tons, Phy-tophthora rot (black pod) 50,000 tons, witches broom and others 20,000 tons, and ants 10,000 tons. According to Wellman (51), cacao diseases are a threat to world production. 

Diseases in Propagators. Propagation of cacao by rooting branch cuttings is at present done extensively in many countries. Losses due to disease while the cuttings remain in the propagator are heavy. Desrosiers and von Buchwald (1U)... 

Among the determined diseases which might assume prominence at any time are the so-called Buba or cushion gall of Nicaragua (52), several types of soft pod rot, a gray mold that attacks cacao leaves, a black rot of the interior of the pod, and undoubtedly other diseases. In general, it is possible that cacao crop losses due to diseases and pests are greater than those reported by Hale (20). 

This equilibrium sometimes causes problems, however. For example, calcium phosphate helps to give bones their rigidity. If the kidneys remove too many phosphate ions from the blood due to disease, the position of equilibrium shifts to the left, as predicted by Le Chatelier s principle. More calcium phosphate dissolves in the blood, reducing bone density. The loss of too much calcium phosphate can lead to osteoporosis. 

In some cases, death due to disease is caused by necrosis. For example, failure of oxygen supply to some cardiomyo-cytes, after occlusion of an arteriole or artery, will decrease the ATP/ADP concentration ratio in these cells, which will... 

Cleared by both renal and hepatic mechanisms so reduced capacity of one pathway (e.g. due to disease or drugs) will not lead to dramatic accumulation... 

One potential difficulty of cost-benefit analysis is that it requires researchers to express an intervention s costs and outcomes in the same units. Thus, monetary values must be associated with years of life lost and morbidity due to disease and with years of life gained and morbidity avoided due to intervention. Expressing costs in this way is obviously difficult in health care analyses. Outcomes (treatment benefits) may be difficult to measure in units of currency. Translating disease and treatment outcomes into monetary measures may be more difficult than translating them into clinical outcome measures, such as years of life saved or years of life saved adjusted for quality. 

Bone tissue has a rather unique capability among human tissues in response to injury or other changes that alter its mechanical requirements it can continuously remodel itself to meet those mechanical needs best [51, 52], For example, when a bone fractures, the body creates new bone to connect the broken fragments together, and then remodels the new bone to optimize its mechanical function in the particular region of the skeleton that the fracture has occurred. Human skeletal tissue has several functions, but, when a bone is fractured by trauma, or removed surgically due to disease or tumor formation, we only seek solutions so that its mechanical function can be carried out [53, 54],... 

We are using the term inadequate sleep instead of sleep deprivation in our title for a number of reasons. First, few studies have aimed specifically to deprive children or adolescents of sleep. We describe some research on experimental sleep restriction in children but most of these studies fall far short of common deprivation paradigms in animals or even adult humans. Instead, most research in younger humans has assessed outcome measures such as school grades, self-reported sleepiness, and so forth as a function of variations in self-selected or usual sleep patterns with the expectation that children and adolescents who obtain lower than normal amounts of sleep will manifest deficits. Thus, inadequate sleep is defined by sleep characteristics of a sample. We also wanted to note some of the literature on sleep that is disturbed or disrupted due to disease processes such as apnea or periodic leg movements the duration of sleep in sleep disorders may or may not be shortened or restricted although it is likely fragmented and otherwise abnormal. We decided on the term inadequate sleep with the hope that it would encompass these different areas of concern. 

Observations A careful clinical examination of all animals should be made at least once each day. Additional observations should be made daily with appropriate actions taken to minimize loss of animals to the study, such as necropsy, refrigeration of those animals found dead, and isolation or sacrifice of weak or moribund animals. Careful observations should be made to detect onset and progression of toxic effects as well as to minimize loss due to diseases, autolysis, or cannibalism. 

Therapy is the treatment of ill-health, be it due to disease, genetic factors, injury or lack of well-being. We will now look at how we can weigh up the merits of different kinds of therapy and what sort of evidence is useful in choosing conventional, complementary or alternative medicine, or a combination of them all, in an a particular case. 

One of the major products of amino acid metabolism is ammonia (NLI3), a molecule known to be highly toxic to higher organisms. In the liver, ammonia and carbon dioxide are used to produce a water-soluble form of nitrogen, urea, via the urea cycle. The liver passes this urea to the blood, which carries it to the kidneys to be filtered out and excreted in the urine. Since one function of the kidney is to collect and excrete urea, increases in the concentration of this compound in the blood are an indicator of poor kidney function. Since urea is formed in the liver, low blood urea nitrogen is often the consequence of impaired liver function due to disease or as the result of infection (hepatitis). 

Although no studies were located that specifically tested immunological effects in humans following inhalation exposure to uranium, all epidemiologic studies of workers in uranium mines and fuel fabrication plants showed no increased incidence of death due to diseases of the immune system (Brown and Bloom 1987 Checkoway et al. 1988 Keane and Polednak 1983 Polednak and Frome 1981). 

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