Cold war

Cold isostatic pressing Cold press molding Cold solvent cleaning Cold War... 

As the result of many years of nuclear reactor research and development and weapons production in U.S. defense programs, a large number of sites were contarninated by radioactive materials. A thorough cleanup of this residue of the Cold War is expected to extend well into the twenty-first century and cost many billions of dollars. New technologies are needed to minimi2e the cost of the cleanup operation. 

The Hanford N Reactor. The Hanford N reactor was built in 1964 for purposes of plutonium production during the Cold War. It used graphite as moderator, pierced by over 1000 Zircaloy 2 tubes. These pressure tubes contained slightly enriched uranium fuel cooled by high temperature light water. The reactor also provided 800 MWe to the Washington PubHc Power Supply System. This reactor was shut down in 1992 because of age and concern for safety. The similarity to the Chemobyl-type reactors played a role in the decision. 

Weapons materials from production reactors were accumulated during the Cold War period as a part of the U.S. defense program. Prominent were tritium, ie, hydrogen-3, having a of 12.3 yr, and plutonium-239, 1/2 = 2.4 X lO" yr. The latter constitutes a waste both as a by-product of weapons fabrication in a waste material called transuranic waste (TRU), and as an excess fissionable material if not used for power production in a reactor. 

In plutonium-fueled breeder power reactors, more plutonium is produced than is consumed (see Nuclearreactors, reactor types). Thus the utilisa tion of plutonium as a nuclear energy or weapon source is especially attractive to countries that do not have uranium-enrichment faciUties. The cost of a chemical reprocessing plant for plutonium production is much less than that of a uranium-235 enrichment plant (see Uranium and uranium compounds). Since the end of the Cold War, the potential surplus of Pu metal recovered from the dismantling of nuclear weapons has presented a large risk from a security standpoint. 

Since the end of the Cold War, the focus of all the laboratories has moved beyond weapons, accelerators, and energy-related research to encompass almost every imaginable field of basic and applied science. Most of the laboratories are increasingly being pushed by Congress to create partnerships with industrial firms to commercialize laboratory-des el-oped technology in the hope that it will improve the overall competitiveness of the U.S. economy. 

The Atomic Energy Act of 1946 represented the interests of American scientists who wished to see nuclear energy developed for nonniilitai y purposes. It called for the establishment of a five-member civilian Atomic Energy Commission (AEC), which could deliver weapons to the military only on presidential order. But the militaiy tensions ot the early Cold War delayed civilian nuclear power development until 1948, at which time 80 percent of the AEC s budget went to militaiy ends. In 1951, U.S. civilian nuclear power development consisted of only a small experimental government (liquid metal) reactor in Idaho. 

The Vesper itself is a double agent, and the Cold War in a glass— both gin and vodka, in deference to Britain and Russia, and Lillet, with a twist of lemon. Every liaison requires lingerie and something tart, right ... 

TNT-based condensation monomers. The synthesis of these materials is presented humorously by Russian authors a as consequence of the end of the Cold War. The synthesis, based on a very easy nucleophilic displacement of an activated nitro group, offers many possibilities for the synthesis of diamines bearing a functional group.117... 

More recently, with the end of the Cold War, there has been a reduction in their stockpiles, in keeping with arms reduction treaties. At the same time, it has come to light that badly disposed canisters containing chemical weapons and originating from World War II are still around, for example, in some areas of the Baltic Sea. Thns, qnestions have been asked about their possible importance as environmental pollutants. 

The third example is compact cleanup units for waste treatment, mainly in consideration of the numerous radioactive sites, stemming from cold-war military developments [106]. The Hanford, Washington, USA, site with a multitude of seriously contaminated tank wastes is among them. Due to the unknown character of most polluting species, the installation of a central waste-treatment facility is said to be not the best and most inexpensive solution. Rather, small modular units, able to be individually adapted to various separation tasks, which are inserted into the tanks and perform cleanup on site, are seen as the proper solution. 

RESEARCH UNIVERSITIES ARE IN THE MIDST OF MAJOR CHANGE. Historically, the research universities have been supported by the Government with two theories in mind (1) national security is important, and science and technology are critical to a strong defense and (2) human health is important. The interest in human health persists, an interest in national security persists, but the adversary has given up. The Soviet Union no longer exists. The question now is, What is the rationale for the support of universities—support in the post-Cold War era The Department of Defense, which has nurtured an important set of activities, has a role in electronics and devices, structural materials, and high-performance or advanced-performance materials. 

Jeffrey Allan Johnson. The Kaiser s Chemists Science and Modernization in Imperial Germany. Chapel Hill, NC The University of North Carolina Press, 1990. Source for German professorate cold war atmosphere Boer war fight with Nernst and Jewish participation in Kaiser Wilhelm institutes. 

I would like to focus briefly on nonproliferation issues and specifically on the United States cooperation with Russia on nuclear material security issues that are directly related to civil nuclear power issues. Our cooperation with Russia on nuclear materials issues has intensified greatly since the end of the Cold War. 

Indeed, when new countries like the U K. France or China became nuclear powers, countries which were already members of the club were strongly opposed, but now it is quite well accepted that possession of nuclear weapons by those countries did not provoke a catastrophe. Some even consider that the existence of nuclear weapons in different camps was a stabilizing factor during the Cold War and prevented a major conflict during the past half-century. Why, then, the possession by India should not stabilize the relation between India and China, and by Pakistan the relation between Pakistan and India, preventing major conflicts in these zones At least the question may be asked. In the same way, the possession by Israel of nuclear weapons, in the opinion of some, has stabilized the situation in the Middle East. In any case, when a country has decided that it is worth while to make the effort and take the risks of developing nuclear weapons, it seems that after some initial outcry, the world accepts it without major retaliation That shows some kind of hypocrisy in the initial claim of a fundamental evil connected with the proliferation of nuclear weapons. The real issue is probably to avoid the acquisition of nuclear weapons by unstable, not very democratic countries. May be Pakistan is in that category clearly the West would not like Libya or Iran and Iraq to possess such weapons. A real, major issue is full nuclear disarmament, but this is another story. 

Further, the authors have carefully examined and documented the public health and environmental impacts of pesticide use in the USSR. The USSR was the largest country by territory in the world and the use of pesticide here was enormous. As the authors have shown, this happened mostly because the USSR s Communistic rulers decided at the end of the 1960 s — to turn all chemical weaponry plants (constructed in the beginning of the cold war) to pesticide production. With rich government subsidies, pesticides were distributed through all collective farms The Soviet official policy, the chemicalisation of agriculture, was an attempt to overcome its prominent ineffectiveness in crop production. 

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