Clostridium Internalization

T. E Yen, J. K. Park, K. I. Lee, and Y. Li. Fate of surfactant vesicles surviving from thermophilic, halotolerant, spore forming, Clostridium thermohydrosulfuricum. In E. C. Donaldson, editor. Microbial enhancement of oil recovery recent advances Proceedings of the 1990 International Conference on Microbial Enhancement of Oil Recovery,... 

Climo MW, Israel DS, Wong ES,Williams D, Coudron P, Markowitz SM Elospital-wide restriction of clindamycin Effect on the incidence of Clostridium difficile-associated diarrhea and cost. Ann Intern Med 1998 128 989— 995. 

Classical bacterial exotoxins, such as diphtheria toxin, cholera toxin, clostridial neurotoxins, and the anthrax toxins are enzymes that modify their substrates within the cytosol of mammalian cells. To reach the cytosol, these toxins must first bind to different cell-surface receptors and become subsequently internalized by the cells. To this end, many bacterial exotoxins contain two functionally different domains. The binding (B-) domain binds to a cellular receptor and mediates uptake of the enzymatically active (A-) domain into the cytosol, where the A-domain modifies its specific substrate (see Figure 1). Thus, three important properties characterize the mode of action for any AB-type toxin selectivity, specificity, and potency. Because of their selectivity toward certain cell types and their specificity for cellular substrate molecules, most of the individual exotoxins are associated with a distinct disease. Because of their enzymatic nature, placement of very few A-domain molecules in the cytosol will normally cause a cytopathic effect. Therefore, bacterial AB-type exotoxins which include the potent neurotoxins from Clostridium tetani and C. botulinum are the most toxic substances known today. However, the individual AB-type toxins can greatly vary in terms of subunit composition and enzyme activity (see Table 2). 

Van Roon, P. S., and Olsman, W. J. (1977). Inhibitory effect of some Perigo-type compounds on Clostridium spores in pasteurized meat products. In Proceedings of the Second International Symposium on Nitrite and Meat Production (B. J. Tinbergen and B. Krol, eds.), p. 53. Pudoc, Wageningen, The Netherlands. 

These spectra, taken at variable temperatures and a small polarizing applied magnetic field, show a temperature-dependent transition for spinach ferredoxin. As the temperature is lowered, the effects of an internal magnetic field on the Mossbauer spectra become more distinct until they result at around 30 °K, in a spectrum which is characteristic of the low temperature data of the plant-type ferredoxins (Fig. 11). We attribute this transition in the spectra to spin-lattice relaxation effects. This conclusion is preferred over a spin-spin mechanism as the transition was identical for both the lyophilized and 10 mM aqueous solution samples. Thus, the variable temperature data for reduced spinach ferredoxin indicate that the electron-spin relaxation time is around 10-7 seconds at 50 °K. The temperature at which this transition in the Mossbauer spectra is half-complete is estimated to be the following spinach ferredoxin, 50 K parsley ferredoxin, 60 °K adrenodoxin, putidaredoxin, Clostridium. and Axotobacter iron-sulfur proteins, 100 °K. 

Antibiotics effectively kill the bacteria, but nothing in modern medicine could combat the toxicity of the Clostridium spores. The Clostridium infection caused massive inflammation of vital organs, internal hemorrhaging, and death. Experts say there is no telling when or where it may strike again. 

Gottwald, M., and Gottschalk, G. 1985.The internal pH of Clostridium acetobutylicum and its effect on the shift from acid to solvent formation. Arch. Microbiol., 143, 42-46. 

Figure 11. The best fit has been found for 5 = 0.7 0.01 nuns, Aitg =—3.25 0.01 nuns, " =(2.11, 2.19, 2.00), "T/ nMn = (-45, 10, 19) T, tj = 0.74 0.1, D = 7.2 0.5 cm, and EID = 0.16 0.02. The zero-field splitting parameter D = 7.2 0.5 cm is comparable to that found for rabredoxin from Clostridium pasteurianum (D = 7.6cm Surprisingly, the rhombicity parameter E/D = 0.16 0.02 differs somewhat from that of rubre-doxin from C. pasteurianum (E/D = 0.28). The hyperfine coupling tensor has been determined to be A = (-14.5, -9.2, -27.5) T. The anisotropy of the hyperfine conpling tensor is cansed by spin-orbit confribntions to the internal magnetic hyperfine field.

Prevalence and pathogenicity of Clostridium difficile in hospitalized patients. A French multicenter study. Arch Intern Med 1996 156(13) 1449-54. 

Gerding DN, Olson MM, Peterson LR, Teasley DG, Gebhard RL, Schwartz ML, Lee JT Jr. Clostridium difficile-associated diarrhea and colitis in adults. A prospective case-controlled epidemiologic study. Arch Intern Med 1986 I46(I) 95-IOO. 

Cudmore MA, Silva J Jr, Fekety R, Liepman MK, Kim KH. Clostridium difficile colitis associated with cancer chemotherapy. Arch Intern Med 1982 142(2) 333-5. 

Florin I, Thelestam M (1983) Internalization of Clostridium difficile cytotoxin into cultured human lung fibroblasts. In Biocbim. Biophys. Acta, 763 383-392. 

Henriques B, Florin I, Thelestam M (1987) Cellular internalization of Clostridium difficile toxin A. In Microb. Pathogen. 2 455—463. 

Brynestad S and Granum PE (2002) Clostridium perfringens and foodborne infections. International Journal of Food Microbiology 74(3) 195-202. 

Juneja, V.K. and Thippareddi, H. 2004. Inhibitory effects of organic acid salts on growth of Clostridium perfringens from spore inocula during chilling of marinated ground turkey breast. International Journal of Food Microbiology 93 155-163. 

Zhu, S., Naim, R, Marcotte, M., Ramaswamy, H., and Shao, Y. 2008. High pressure destruction kinetics of Clostridium sporogenes spores in ground beef at elevated temperatures. International Journal of Food Microbiology 126 86-92. 

Microbes are killed by heat. If food is heated to an internal temperature above I6O0F, or 78oC, for even a few seconds this sufficient to kill parasites, viruses or bacteria, except for the Clostridium bacteria, which produce a heat-resistant form called a spore. Clostridium spores are killed only at temperatures above boiling. This is why canned foods must be cooked to a high temperature under pressure as part of the canning process. 

Willems, A., Collins, M. D. (1995). Phylogentic placement of Dialister pneumosintes (formerly Bacteroides pneumosintes) within the Sporomusa subbranch of the Clostridium subphylum of the gram-positive bacteria. International Journal of Systematic Bacteriology, 45, 403 05. 

Linsky A, Gupta K, Lawler EV, Fonda JR, Hermos JA. Proton pump inhibitors and risk for recurrent Clostridium dijficile infection. Arch Intern Med 2010 170 772-8 [erratum 1100]. 

Collet, C., Adler, N., Schwitzguebel, J. P., Peringer, P. (2004). Hydrogen production by Clostridium thermolacticum during continuous fermentation of lactose. International... 

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