Biological and Environmental Samples

The Pu in these samples ranges from readily soluble in the case of metabolized 

Nielsen and Beasley describe methods for dissolving various biological samples. Most procedures for dissolving fallout or other environmental samples involve treatment with HF or a basic fusion step which renders the Pu soluble in acids. 

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Van Loon, J. G. Selected Methods of Trace Metal Analysis Biological and Environmental Samples. Wiley-lnterscience New York, 1985. 

J. Henion, E. Brewer and G. Rule, Sample preparation for LC/MS/MS analyzing biological and environmental samples . Anal. Chem. 70 650A-656A (1998). 

Discontinuity between the physical form of the sample and reference material used can lead to error. This is another manifestation of the matrix effect, but one which has to be considered when analyzing biological and environmental samples. There is no easy answer to the relationship between partide size and homogeneity. It is a popular assumption that the smaller the partide size the less the degree of heterogeneity. In some cases this may be true but there are a number of considerations. 

Reversed-phase HPLC followed by post-column derivatization and subsequent fluorescence detection is the most common technique for quantitative determination of oxime carbamate insecticides in biological and environmental samples. However, for fast, sensitive, and specific analysis of biological and environmental samples, detection by MS and MS/MS is preferred over fluorescence detection. Thus, descriptions and recommendations for establishing and optimizing HPLC fluorescence, HPLC/ MS, and HPLC/MS/MS analyses are discussed first. This is followed by specific rationales for methods and descriptions of the recommended residue methods that are applicable to most oxime carbamates in plant, animal tissue, soil, and water matrices. 

Currently, HPLC/fiuorescence is still the most common technique for the determination of residues of oxime carbamates. With the introduction of ESI and APCI MS interfaces, HPLC/MS analysis for oxime carbamates in various sample matrices has become widespread. However, for a rapid, sensitive, and specific analysis of biological and environmental samples, HPLC/MS/MS is preferred to HPLC/MS and HPLC/fiuorescence. With time, improved and affordable triple-quadrupole mass spectrometers will be available in more analytical laboratories. With stricter regulatory requirements, e.g., highly specific and conclusive methods with lower LOQ, HPLC/MS/MS will be a method of choice for oxime carbamates and their metabolites. 

For fast reactions (i.e., < 1 min.), open tubular reactors are commonly used. They simply consist of a mixing device and a coiled stainless steel or Teflon capillary tube of narrow bore enclosed in a thermostat. The length of the capillary tube and the flow rate through it control the reaction time. Reagents such as fluorescamine and o-phthalaldehyde are frequently used in this type of system to determine primary amines, amino acids, indoles, hydrazines, etc., in biological and environmental samples. 

The first interest in the electroreduction of N02 or NO catalyzed by metal complexes is to model the activity of nitrite reductase enzymes.327 There is also an extensive growth in studies related to the development of metal complex-based electrochemical sensors for NO determination in biological and environmental samples 328 329 Nitrate disproportionates to nitric oxide and nitrate in aqueous solution. 

Acrylonitrile in both biological and environmental samples is most commonly determined by gas chromatography with a nitrogen-phosphorus detector (GC/NPD) (Page 1985), gas chromatography/flame ionization detection (GC/FID) (EPA 1982a), or gas chromatography/mass spectroscopy (GC/MS) (Anderson and Harland 1980). Infrared spectroscopy (Jacobs and Syrjala... 

In the analysis of clinical, biological and environmental samples it is often important to have information on the speciation of the analyte, e.g. metal atoms. Thus an initial sample solution may be subjected to a separation stage using chromatography or electrophoresis. Measurements may, of course, be made on fractions from a fraction collector, but with plasma sources, interfacing in order to provide a continuous monitoring of the column effluent can be possible. This relies upon the ability of the high-temperature plasma to break down the matrix and produce free ions. 

Gases, liquids or solutions sample clean-up or dilution usually required Liquid or solid samples requires additional instrumentation Liquids that require cleanup such as biological and environmental samples... 

No ongoing studies concerning techniques for measuring and determining endrin, endrin aldehyde, or endrin ketone in biological and environmental samples were reported. 

High-performance liquid chromatographic separation with electrochemical detection may provide the best sensitivity for phenol quantification in biological samples. The use of gas chromatography with a flame ionization detector may be a more versatile method, if other non-ionic pollutants must be quantified. The advantages and disadvantages of different methods available for the quantification of phenol and metabolites in biological and environmental samples have been discussed by Tesarova and Packova(1983). 

Luminescence, in particular photoluminescence, constitutes a well-established discipline in analytical science where the cited hallmarks include remarkable sensitivity, wide dynamic range and low detection limits (-10under suitable conditions). These collective merits are often umivaled by other optical techniques, and hence its wide adoption in the life sciences for determining trace constituents in biological and environmental samples. Moreover, its fast response, high spatial resolution and remote sensing capabilities make it attractive for real-time analytical problems such as process manufacturing (process analysis or PAT) and field applications. ... 

Under the sponsorship of the National Science Foundation and in collaboration with scientists in New Zealand, Burnett of Florida State University is attempting to develop a chemical separation technique for uranium, thorium, and their daughter products (Federal Research in Progress 1990). Other than this research, no studies are in progress for improving the method for the quantification of thorium and daughter products in biological and environmental samples. 

Bernabee RP. 1983. A rapid method for the determination of americium, curium, plutonium and thorium in biological and environmental samples. Health Phys 44 688-692. 

Singh NP, Wrenn ME. 1988. Determinations of actinides in biological and environmental samples. Sci Total Env 70 187-203. 

The most variable aspect of carbon tetrachloride analysis is the procedure used to separate carbon tetrachloride from the medium and prepare a sample suitable for GC analysis. As a volatile organic compound of relatively low water solubility, carbon tetrachloride is easily lost from biological and environmental samples, so appropriate care must be exercised in handling and storing such samples for chemical analysis. Brief summaries of the methods available for extraction and detection of carbon tetrachloride in biological and environmental samples are provided below. 

The analytical methods used to quantify diazinon in biological and environmental samples are summarized below. Table 6-1 lists the applicable analytical methods for determining diazinon in biological fluids and tissues and Table 6-2 lists the methods used for determining diazinon in environmental samples. 

H. Matusiewicz, B. Golik and A. Suszka, Determination of the residual carbon content in biological and environmental samples by microwave-induced-plasma atomic emission spectrometry, Chem. Anal. (Warsaw), 44(3B), 1999, 559-566. 

DS Forsyth, JR Lyengar. Enzymic hydrolysis of biological and environmental samples as pretreatment for analysis. J Assoc Off Anal Chem 72 997-1001, 1989. 

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