Anatomical Techniques

The most frequently used method to assay for the neuropathological effects of aluminum is the neuroanatomical verification of neurofibrillary tangles. This can be done either at the light or electron microscopic level. 

At the light microscopic level, tissue can be thinly sectioned and examined either with stains for cell constituents other than the neurofibrillary tangles (e.g., cell stains), or with ones that stain the tangles themselves (e.g., silver stains). Affected neurons stained with cresyl violet or toluidine blue show clear areas in the cytoplasm, indicating areas of neurofibrillary tangles. Conversely, staining with the Bielschowski or Bodian stains reveal darkly stained strands of neurofibrillary tangles in the cytoplasm. 

At the electron microscopic level, neurofibrillary tangles are easily observed in the soma of neurons fixed in glutaraldehyde and processed through osmium tetroxide. 

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Subsequent anatomical techniques (e.g. immunohisto-chemistry of 5-HT or tryptophan hydroxylase, an enzyme unique to the synthesis of 5-HT retrograde and anterograde axonal transport studies) have allowed a more complete and accurate characterization of the serotonergic innervation of forebrain areas. 

Combining Nonradioactive in Situ Hybridization with Immunohistological and Anatomical Techniques Petra Wahle... 

The pattern of cholinergic receptor sites in PC is similar to the efferent inputs of HDB neurons. An array of anatomical techniques show all four muscarinic subtypes (m, mj, m3, and m4) to be present in layer II PC (Buckley et al. 1988 Spencer et al. 1986 Zilles et al. 1989 and Rotter et al. 1979). The m, receptor subtype has also been identified immunocytochemically to be on dendritic spines in layer I, but the identification of these... 

For the parasitic nematodes putative neurotransmitters and/or neuromodulators include ACh (excitatory), y-aminobutyric acid (inhibitory), and glutamate (excitatory). Though 5-FIT and the catecholamines are indicated by immuno-cytochemical, biochemical and anatomical techniques, their precise functions as neurosignals remains to be determined. The study of neuropeptides in nematodes has revealed the strong candidacy of the family of FMRFamide-like peptides and in particular the AF peptides which have been shown to have specific physiological effects. 

The concept of biochemical lesion has been a revolutionary weapon against the exclusive domination of Pasteurian ideas and anatomical techniques in pathology. It shows that many pathological conditions (classified according to clinical symptoms or anatomical data) originate from some biochemical trouble which may be proved to be the reason, the primordial anomaly, which, when persisting, determines the macroscopic or microscopic lesicns . 

Miyazaki T, Watanabe M (2011) Development of an anatomical technique for visualizing the mode of climbing fiber innervation in Purkinje cells and its application to mutant mice lacking GluRdelta2 and Ca(v)2.1. Anat Sci Int 86 10-18... 

Positron emission tomography (PET) is an imaging technique that relies on the emission of positrons from radionucleotides tagged to an injectable compound of interest. Each positron emitted by the radioisotope collides with an electron to emit two photons at 180° from each other. The photons are detected and the data processed so that the source of the photons can be identified and an image generated showing the anatomical localization of the compound of interest. 

Autologous hematopoietic stem cells are obtained (or harvested ) from bone marrow or peripheral blood. The technique for harvesting autologous hematopoietic cells depends on the anatomic source (i.e., bone marrow or peripheral blood). A surgical procedure is necessary for obtaining bone marrow. Multiple aspirations of marrow are obtained from the anterior and posterior iliac crests until a volume with a sufficient number of hematopoietic cells is collected (i.e., 600-1200 mL of bone marrow). The bone marrow then is processed to remove fat or marrow emboli and usually is infused intravenously into the patient like a blood transfusion. 

From 8 to 30 pounds [or 120 leaves, if foliage (4)] of the field sample are used penetration samples are dissected or otherwise suitably treated so as to afford several pounds of the desired anatomical portion of the field sample. [The size of the field sample and its method of collection vary tremendously for different materials—e.g., olives vs. alfalfa hay. These two parameters are under statistical investigation, but the paucity of reliable and sufficiently extensive data precludes formal publication of field sampling and processing techniques for materials other than leaves 4). A manual of processing procedure (5) has been mimeographed for guidance of personnel, based upon empirical observations as data are accumulated, it will be revised and expanded periodically. ]... 

Montone KT, Brigati DJ, Budgeon LR. Anatomic viral detection is automated the application of a robotic molecular pathology system for the detection of DNA viruses in anatomic pathology substrates, using immunocytochemical and nucleic acid hybridization techniques. Yale J. Biol. Med. 1989 62 141-158. 

Microanalytical techniques were first pioneered in the 1960s, and the earliest paper using X-ray microanalysis on plant materials is that of Lauchli and Schwander in 1966 (1). It was soon realized that microanalysis could provide a link between anatomical studies and plant physiology. It allowed scientists who were interested in aspects of plant mineral relations to pursue their interests at a cellular or even subcellular level. Microanalysis, in its various forms, is now a well-established technique, and one that is continuing to develop. 

Of all the models, the ex vivo perfused placenta most closely resembles the in vivo situation, because it retains the placental organization. It has been used to estimate drug transport across the placenta [23, 24], The cotyledon is the anatomical unit of the placenta and at term, the human placenta contains about 20-30 cotyledons. In the perfused placenta technique, term placentas are... 

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