Acid catalyzed, addition aldol reaction

The BINAP silver(I) complex can be further applied as a chiral catalyst in the asymmetric aldol reaction. Although numerous successful methods have been developed for catalytic asymmetric aldol reaction, most are the chiral Lewis acid-catalyzed Mukaiyama aldol reactions using silyl enol ethers or ketene silyl acetals [32] and there has been no report which includes enol stannanes. Yanagisawa, Yamamoto, and their colleagues found the first example of catalytic enantioselective aldol addition of tributyltin enolates 74 to aldehydes employing BINAP silver(I) complex as a catalyst (Sch. 19) [33]. 

The synthesis of the C1-C9 fragment 120 began with an auxiliary controlled aldol reaction of the chloroacetimide 121, where chlorine is present as a removable group to ensure high diastereoselectivity in what would otherwise have been a non-selective addition (Scheme 9-39). The Lewis acid-catalyzed, Mukaiyama aldol reaction of dienyl silyl ether 122 with / -chiral aldehyde 123 proceeded with 94%ds, giving the 3-anti product 124, as predicted by the opposed dipoles model [3]. Anti reduction of the aldol product and further manipulation then provided the C1-C9 fragment 120 of the bryostatins. 

The Mukaiyama aldol reaction is beyond doubt a brilliant triumph of modem synthetic organic chemistry however, the reaction products are contaminated with pre-activated silyl enol ethers derived from the carbonyl compounds with stoichiometric amounts of silylation agent and base. In addition, silylated wastes are inherently formed. Circumventing the pre-activation process improves atom efH-ciency in this case, the carbonyl nucleophiles react directly with the carbonyl electrophiles in the presence of catalyst. The first Bronsted acid-catalyzed direct aldol reactions have been achieved using chiral Hg-BINOL-derived phosphoric acid 96 (Scheme 28.12) [66], The aldol products (127) have syn-configurations and, thus, this reaction is complementary to (S)-proHne catalysis in Brpnsted acids, which in general yields the anti configuration [11]. 

The use of different acid functionalities on pyrrolidine-derived catalysts has improved the reaction rate of some aldol reactions. For example, pyrrolidine-based tetrazole derivative 9 (Fig. 2.2) catalyzed many aldol reactions with rates faster than proline, with similar stereocontrol [16, 18b, 24, 55]. The faster reaction rates with tetrazole derivative 9 in DM SO as compared with proline were attributed to the lower pKa of the tetrazole moiety as compared to the carboxylic acid group in DMSO (tetrazole pKa(DMSO) 8.2 acetic acid pKa(DMSO) 12.3) [55, 56]. In addition, tetrazole derivative 9 is more soluble than proline in many organic solvents. A higher actual concentration of the catalyst in the solution phase of a reaction mix-... 

The mechanism is similar to that of the barium-catalyzed direct aldol reaction (Scheme 16). The reaction commences with deprotonation of the ketone (2) by the Br0nsted base unit of the catalyst under generation of the enolate 81. After addition of the aldehyde 1 the Lewis acid-base adduct 82 is formed. Then the reaction of the aldehyde and the enolate occurs (82 83). After... 

The most intensely studied aldol addition mechanisms are those beUeved to proceed through closed transition structures, which are best understood within the Zimmerman-Traxler paradigm (Fig. 5) [Id]. Superposition of this construct on the Felkin-Ahn model for carbonyl addition reactions allows for the construction of transition-state models impressive in their abiUty to account for many of the stereochemical features of aldol additions [50a, 50b, 50c, 51]. Moreover, consideration of dipole effects along with remote non-bonding interactions in the transition-state have imparted additional sophistication to the analysis of this reaction and provide a bedrock of information that may be integrated into the further development and refinement of the corresponding catalytic processes [52a, 52b]. One of the most powerful features of the Zimmerman-Traxler model in its application to diastereoselective additions of chiral enolates to aldehydes is the correlation of enolate geometry (Z- versus E-) with simple di-astereoselectivity in the products syn versus anti). Consequently, the analyses of catalytic, enantioselective variants that display such stereospecificity often invoke closed, cyclic structures. Further studies of these systems are warranted, since it is not clear to what extent such models, which have evolved in the context of diastereoselective aldol additions via chiral auxiliary control, are applicable in the Lewis acid-catalyzed addition of enol silanes and aldehydes. 

In contrast to the mechanism discussed in the previous section, catalytic, enantioselective aldol addition processes have been described which proceed through an intermediate aldolate that undergoes subsequent intermolecular silylation. Denmark has discussed this possibility in a study of the triarylmethyl-cation-catalyzed Mukaiyama aldol reaction (Scheme 10) [73]. The results of exploratory experiments suggested that it would be possible to develop a competent catalytic, enantioselective Lewis-acid mediated process even when strongly Lewis acidic silyl species are generated transiently in the reaction mixture. A system of this type is viable only if the rate of silylation of the metal aldolate is faster than the rate of the competing silyl-catalyzed aldol addition reaction (ksj>> ksi-aidoi Scheme 10). A report by Chen on the enantioselective aldol addition reaction catalyzed by optically active triaryl cations provides support for the mechanistic conclusions of the Denmark study [74]. 

Aldol Reaction (Section 19.2) The aldol reaction involves nucleophilic addition of the enolate anion of one aldehyde or ketone to the carbonyl group of another aldehyde or ketone. The product of an aldol reaction is a j8-hydroxyaldehyde or a /3-hydroxyketone. An aldol reaction can be base catalyzed or acid catalyzed. If base is regenerated at the end of the reaction, it is base catalyzed, and if acid is regenerated, it is acid catalyzed. In both reactions, one or two new chiral centers are often created, leading to racemic products unless a starting aldehyde, ketone, or catalyst is chiral and present as a single enantiomer. 

The reaction between amino group (-NH2) and a carbonyl group (C=0) elsewhere in the same molecule has been used in the synthesis of many heterocyclic compounds. For example as shown in Equation 9.53, substituted quinolines can be produced by acid-catalyzed cyclization of the appropriate aminoketones (formed during the Friedlander synthesis, in this instance between propanone and ortho-aminobenzaldehyde, in an aldol-type reaction with loss of water this chapter, vide infra), and even more than one reaction can be induced to occur. Thus, in Equation 9.54,1,2-benzenediamine (ort/io-aminoaniline) undergoes acid-catalyzed addition to 2,3-butane-dione to produce 2,3-dimethyl-13-benzopyrazine (23-dime thy Iquinoxaline). ... 

Hajos and Parrish at Hoffmann La Roche discovered that proline-catalyzed intramolecular aldol reactions of triketones such as 104 and 107 furnish al-dols 105 and 108 in good yields and vith high enantioselectivity (Scheme 4.17). Acid-catalyzed dehydration of the aldol addition products then gave condensation products 106 and 109 (Eqs. (1) and (2)). Independently, Eder, Sauer, and Wiechert at Schering AG in Germany directly isolated the aldol condensation products vhen the same cyclizations vere conducted in the presence of proline (10-200 mol%) and an acid co-catalyst (Eqs. (3) and (4)). 

C. Discovery of aldol reaction variants such as the Le vis acid catalyzed addition of enolsilanes to aldehydes (Mukaiyama aldol variant). 

In the catalytic cycle, a simplified version of which is shown in Scheme 5.72 for the acetate aldol addition of 246, the highly electrophilic silyl cation 251 plays a key role, as assumed by the authors. It forms from the reaction of tetrachlorosilane with the corresponding phosphoramide ((Me2N)3PO symbolizing the catalyst 235). When loaded with benzaldehyde, silicon enlarges its coordination sphere and adopts an octahedral geometry in 252. After the carbon-carbon bond has been established, cation 253 forms. It then decomposes to liberate phosphoramide 235, chlorotrialkylsilane, and the aldolate 254. By NMR studies, it was shown that the intermediate of this procedure is the tric/i/orosilyl-protected aldolate 254. This makes a substantial mechanistic difference to conventional Lewis acid-catalyzed Mukaiyama aldol protocols that deliver tri /Ay/silyl-protected aldolates. In accordance with the catalytic cycle shown in Scheme 5.72, tetrachlorosilane is consumed and therefore required to be used in stoichiometric amounts. Thus, the reaction is catalyzed by phosphoramides and mediated by tetrachlorosilane or, more generally, by Lewis base-activated Lewis acids [126]. 

The derivative 39 has also been reported to catalyze the aldol reaction between underivatized hydroxyacetone and activated benzaldehydes, affording the products with low diastereoselectivity and in moderate to high ee [109]. The best results were obtained with (R,R)-tartaric acid as co-catalyst and the absence of a solvent. In addition, a scalable procedure for the reaction with 4-nitrobenzaldehyde was developed involving a single crystallization step in order to obtain the enantiopure branched product of the aldol reaction. j n example of an intramolecular aldol reaction is provided by work of List and coworkers, who found that the formation of enantioenriched 5-substituted-3-methyl-2-cyclohexene-l-ones could be obtained from 4-substituted-2,6-hexadiones with 36 as the catalyst (Scheme 6.51) [llOj. 

The deployment of natural primary amino acids as organocatalysts for the asymmetric aldol reaction, albeit useful because of the easy availability of such molecules, is not an interesting synthetic approach due to the low enantioselectivities observed, long reaction times, and high catalytic loadings needed [23]. For instance, L-alanine was able to catalyze the aldol reaction in excellent stereoselectivity, but with long reaction times, when employed in aqueous (10 equiv.) DMSO. The addition of water was crucial for the success of the reaction. The more hydrophobic... 

The Lewis-acid-catalyzed carbonyl-ene reaction represents an important alternative method for the addition of an allyl group to a carbonyl group (Equation 23). The resulting secondary homoallylic alcohols are amenable to a number of structural modifications and constitute useful synthetic building blocks. Because the olefin of the products can be a surrogate for a carbonyl functionality, these homoallylic alcohol are formally the synthetic equivalent of aldol addition products. Powerful asymmetric versions of the carbonyl-ene reaction [196, 197] provide an important alternative to the more traditional allylation methods, which primarily employ silanes, boranes, or stannanes (see Chapter 5). 

The usual base or acid catalyzed aldol addition or ester condensation reactions can only be applied as a useful synthetic reaction, if both carbonyl components are identical. Otherwise complicated mixtures of products are formed. If two different aldehydes or esters are to be combined, it is essential that one of the components is transformed quantitatively into an enol whereas the other component remains as a carbonyl compound in the reaction mixture. 

In E. coli GTP cyclohydrolase catalyzes the conversion of GTP (33) into 7,8-dihydroneoptetin triphosphate (34) via a three-step sequence. Hydrolysis of the triphosphate group of (34) is achieved by a nonspecific pyrophosphatase to afford dihydroneopterin (35) (65). The free alcohol (36) is obtained by the removal of residual phosphate by an unknown phosphomonoesterase. The dihydroneoptetin undergoes a retro-aldol reaction with the elimination of a hydroxy acetaldehyde moiety. Addition of a pyrophosphate group affords hydroxymethyl-7,8-dihydroptetin pyrophosphate (37). Dihydropteroate synthase catalyzes the condensation of hydroxymethyl-7,8-dihydropteroate pyrophosphate with PABA to furnish 7,8-dihydropteroate (38). Finally, L-glutamic acid is condensed with 7,8-dihydropteroate in the presence of dihydrofolate synthetase. 

Esterification. The hydroxyl groups of sugars can react with organic and inorganic acids just as other alcohols do. Both natural and synthetic carbohydrate esters are important in various apphcations (1,13). Phosphate monoesters of sugars are important in metabohc reactions. An example is the enzyme-catalyzed, reversible aldol addition between dibydroxyacetone phosphate [57-04-51 and D-ylyceraldehyde 3-phosphate [591-57-1 / to form D-fmctose 1,6-bisphosphate [488-69-7],... 

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