A brief historical overview

In order to construct a theory of liquid mixtures, it is necessary to know two types of information the structure of liquids (i.e. how the molecules in the liquid are disposed in space) and the intermolecular forces between similar or dissimilar molecules. However, information about the second type of information is insufficient and as a consequence all the theories must make simplifying h q)otheses to overcome this drawback [PRA 99]. Theoretical works have concerned liquid mixtures whose molecules are apolar and spherical in shape for example, the theory independently developed in 1933 by Scatchard and Hildebrand [PRA 99] frequently used 

Several methods of group contributions have been developed Analytical Solution of Groups (ASOG) [WIL 62], Universal Quasichemical 

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The developmental histories of artificial life and cellular automata have been intertwined ever since von Neumann hrst showed how to construct a self-reproducing automaton ([voiiN66] see section 11.7). A brief historical overview of artificial life appears in chapter 11. 

In this chapter, we intend to give the reader an understanding of the possibilities and pitfalls of filterFRET. Following a brief historical overview describing early nonquantitative incarnations of FRET imaging, the theory that allows quantitative wide-field and... 

Figure 8 presents a brief historical overview of the develop-... 

In this chapter we focus on a few selective new VCD applications reported in the last 5 years, along with a brief review of the basic experimental techniques and theoretical methods. The remainder of this chapter is organized as follows. In the next section, we will present the VCD experimental technique with a short review of VCD instrumentation and some recent developments, and describe the usual procedure to obtain VA and VCD measurements in solution and in thin film states. In Sect. 3 the associated VCD computational simulations will be illustrated. This includes a brief historical overview of the theory development, and some basics related to VCD calculations, as well as the typical procedure of carrying out VCD simulations. The main part of this chapter deals with the diverse applications of VCD spectroscopy, focusing on the new developments in the last 5 years. Since there are a large number of publications which are dedicated to AC determinations of many interesting and important chiral molecules, a comprehensive review of all... 

This paper is intended to provide a brief historical overview of the Army s chemical demilitarization program and provide some insight to the types of disposal processes, procedures, and equipment employed. 

This Chapter provides a brief historical overview of chemical nomenclature (Section IR-1.2) followed by summaries of its aims, functions and methods (Sections IR-1.3 to IR-1.5). There are several systems of nomenclature that can be applied to inorganic compounds, briefly described in Section IR-1.5.3.5 as an introduction to the later, more detailed, chapters. Because each system can provide a valid name for a compound, a flowchart is presented in Section IR-1.5.3 which should help identify which is the most appropriate for the type of compound of interest. Section IR-1.6 summarises the major changes from previous... 

This entry gives a brief historical overview and discussion of relevant material properties, followed by a survey of the methods currently used to produce solar cell materials, with an emphasis on silicon. 

The term refractory refers to materials that are resistant to the effects of heat. Refractory oxides, therefore, are ceramic materials that can be used at elevated temperatures. These nondescript restrictions allow nearly any oxide to be classified as refractory. For this article, refractory oxides will refer, somewhat arbitrarily, to common crystalline compounds with melting temperatures of at least 1,800°C. These compounds can contain one or more metal or metalloid cations bonded to oxygen. As an introduction to the topic, this section provides a brief historic overview of materials commonly used in the refractories industry, including some lower melting temperature materials. The section also reviews some current trends in the industries that produce and use refractory oxides. The other sections of this chapter focus on phase-pure oxide ceramics that can be used at elevated temperatures. 

Joe Chatt has been a pioneer of modern organometallic chemistry involving transition metal phosphine derivatives and in particular hydride complexes. In this article, we will emphasise the link between the pioneering work of Joe Chatt and the present interest in (T-bond complexes and their reactivity. This article concentrates on the chemistry of ruthenium derivatives and is divided into a brief historical overview, giving a perspective of the evolution of the chemistry of ruthenium hydride complexes and a part describing recent achievements in this field, mainly from our research group. 

A brief historical overview to see how we got here may be of interest. Dale (1906) provided the first experimental evidence of two types of sympathetic responses by establishing that one of them, the pressor effect of EP (in the spinal cat) could be abolished with ergot alkaloids (ergotoxine), leaving only the depressor action, which is an apparent reversal. The interpretation then was that pressor activity (i.e., vasoconstriction) is the predominant effect of EP, and the vasodilation (i.e., blood pressure fall) appears when ergot blocks the vasoconstrictor component. Dale further established that excitatory responses of var-... 

In the following. Section 21.2 gives a brief historical overview. Section 21.3 surveys established semiempirical methods introduced before 1990, Section 21.4 addresses some more recent methodological developments. Section 21.5 presents selected recent applications, and Section 21.6 offers a summary and an outlook. 

Each chapter includes a brief historical overview of ion exchange and its applications. The authors also give a brief overview of these applications as well as review current experimental data on the subject. 

Progress in nanophotonics is shown to result essentially from the transfer of ideas and concepts from quantum solid state theory to optics. A brief historical overview of the principal nanophotonic concepts and its quantum counterparts is provided and the possible reasons are discussed why quantum effects are transferable to electromagnetism but not vice versa. 

At the creation of quantum physics, optical analogs did play an important role in formulation of new wave mechanics. Many years later, in the second half of the XX-th century, thorough examination of phenomena associated with wave propagation in solids and nanostructures, the quantum theory of solids made a distinguished impact on photonic engineering and understanding of principal nanophotonic issues. In this paper, a brief historical overview is provided in support of the above statement. 

This chapter will address the special considerations that apply to incorporating dense, hydrogen-permeable metal membranes into practical membrane modules for commercial and industrial use. It is organized to present a brief historical overview, a general review of hydrogen-permeable metal membranes, scale-up from laboratory test-and-evaluation membrane modules to commercial membrane modules, membrane module design and construction, and commercial applicability. 

After a brief historical overview, the various approaches to the scale-up of microwave chemistry will be discussed. This will be followed by a section detailing the current commercially available microwave reactors for scale-up. Practical applications and concerns will be addressed together with a discussion of reaction classes that work particularly well in microwave reactors. Chemistry that has been performed in the different available reactors will be presented in order to exan-plify particular techniques and practices, but the discussion will not attempt to be exhaustive since several other books and reviews have already attempted this." Attention here will be drawn to special features and uses. Further applications to demonstrate how microwave heating can be used as an investigative tool at the small scale for process chemists and others wiU foUow. In accordance with the main theme of sustainability of this book, the current hot topic of the energy efficiency of microwave heating will also be covered in this chapter. Recent developments in the area of pilot-scale microwave chemistry will be noted before the final conclusions. 

Our current discussion will, therefore, begin with a brief historical overview of metalloporphyrin electrochemishy and a list of previously utilized nonaqueous solvents and supporting electrolytes, which have been used in porphyrin studies. It will be followed by a general description... 

The synthesis of sugar fatty acid esters has recently been described in several reviews [1-6]. In the following section, we highlight recent trends and provide a brief historical overview of the production of sugar fatty acid esters with particular emphasis on the sucrose esters. 

Human fascination with diamond as a hard gemstone dates back several millennia, while the use of diamond for industrial manufacturing and processing is much more recent and has grown considerably since the development of high-pressure/high-temperature (HPHT) methods for synthesis of diamond and cubic boron nitride (cBN). After a brief historical overview, this chapter will describe the industrial diamond and cBN products in widespread use today and the applications for which they are so well suited ... 

The rest of this chapter is structured as follows. Section 5.2 gives a brief historical overview together with a description of the synthesis, structure and preparation of ferroelectric polymers. Section 5.3 defines the properties required to evaluate these materials, and includes typical values and brief accounts of the measurement methods. Section 5.4 details the applications of ferroelectric polymers, covering sound transducers, biomedical, pyroelectric and mechanical applications. Conclusions are briefly described in section 5,5. 

The text starts with a brief historic overview and then describes in great detail the various ways of enolate generation and the structural properties of metallated enolates (Chapters 1-3). This sets the stage for asymmetric enolate reactions. In Chapter 4, diastereoselective auxiliary-controlled enolate alkylations and aldol additions are presented with main focus on Evans type auxiliaries, without, however, neglecting alternative auxiliaries. The largest chapter (Chapter 5) is devoted... 

In this chapter, attention is focused on the technology of the hthium batteries. After a brief historical overview, we draw most of the primary and secondary lithium batteries. To get further information on the interest of these power sources, we invite the readers to consult works in references as there have been pubhshed numerous excellent books on LiBs based on various different viewpoints [3-16]. However, there are few books available on the state-of-the-art and future of next generation LiBs, particularly eventually for EVs and HE Vs. 

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