Brief Historical Overview

The developmental histories of artificial life and cellular automata have been intertwined ever since von Neumann hrst showed how to construct a self-reproducing automaton ([voiiN66] see section 11.7). A brief historical overview of artificial life appears in chapter 11. 

Brief Historical Overview of P-Chirogenic Phosphine Ligands... 

In this chapter, we intend to give the reader an understanding of the possibilities and pitfalls of filterFRET. Following a brief historical overview describing early nonquantitative incarnations of FRET imaging, the theory that allows quantitative wide-field and... 

So far in this brief historical overview we have studiously avoided the subject of inventorship of slurry expls. This is still a matter of. intense and acrimonious controversy. Slurry patent rights have been the subject of several protracted litigations. Consequently the writer will approach this subject with caution and trepidation... 

Figure 8 presents a brief historical overview of the develop-... 

III. BRIEF HISTORICAL OVERVIEW OF THE BUSINESS DEVELOPMENT OF COMBINATORIAL CHEMISTRY... 

In this chapter we focus on a few selective new VCD applications reported in the last 5 years, along with a brief review of the basic experimental techniques and theoretical methods. The remainder of this chapter is organized as follows. In the next section, we will present the VCD experimental technique with a short review of VCD instrumentation and some recent developments, and describe the usual procedure to obtain VA and VCD measurements in solution and in thin film states. In Sect. 3 the associated VCD computational simulations will be illustrated. This includes a brief historical overview of the theory development, and some basics related to VCD calculations, as well as the typical procedure of carrying out VCD simulations. The main part of this chapter deals with the diverse applications of VCD spectroscopy, focusing on the new developments in the last 5 years. Since there are a large number of publications which are dedicated to AC determinations of many interesting and important chiral molecules, a comprehensive review of all... 

This paper is intended to provide a brief historical overview of the Army s chemical demilitarization program and provide some insight to the types of disposal processes, procedures, and equipment employed. 

This brief historical overview of RPLC development is far from the full description of all signihcant achievements made in the past however, the primary goal is to show the path of the development, which was, to a larger extent, in the tail of GC development. Consequently, the models and the descriptions of the retention mechanism were essentially transferred from gas-liquid partition chromatography. 

This Chapter provides a brief historical overview of chemical nomenclature (Section IR-1.2) followed by summaries of its aims, functions and methods (Sections IR-1.3 to IR-1.5). There are several systems of nomenclature that can be applied to inorganic compounds, briefly described in Section IR-1.5.3.5 as an introduction to the later, more detailed, chapters. Because each system can provide a valid name for a compound, a flowchart is presented in Section IR-1.5.3 which should help identify which is the most appropriate for the type of compound of interest. Section IR-1.6 summarises the major changes from previous... 

This entry gives a brief historical overview and discussion of relevant material properties, followed by a survey of the methods currently used to produce solar cell materials, with an emphasis on silicon. 

The term refractory refers to materials that are resistant to the effects of heat. Refractory oxides, therefore, are ceramic materials that can be used at elevated temperatures. These nondescript restrictions allow nearly any oxide to be classified as refractory. For this article, refractory oxides will refer, somewhat arbitrarily, to common crystalline compounds with melting temperatures of at least 1,800°C. These compounds can contain one or more metal or metalloid cations bonded to oxygen. As an introduction to the topic, this section provides a brief historic overview of materials commonly used in the refractories industry, including some lower melting temperature materials. The section also reviews some current trends in the industries that produce and use refractory oxides. The other sections of this chapter focus on phase-pure oxide ceramics that can be used at elevated temperatures. 

Joe Chatt has been a pioneer of modern organometallic chemistry involving transition metal phosphine derivatives and in particular hydride complexes. In this article, we will emphasise the link between the pioneering work of Joe Chatt and the present interest in (T-bond complexes and their reactivity. This article concentrates on the chemistry of ruthenium derivatives and is divided into a brief historical overview, giving a perspective of the evolution of the chemistry of ruthenium hydride complexes and a part describing recent achievements in this field, mainly from our research group. 

A brief historical overview to see how we got here may be of interest. Dale (1906) provided the first experimental evidence of two types of sympathetic responses by establishing that one of them, the pressor effect of EP (in the spinal cat) could be abolished with ergot alkaloids (ergotoxine), leaving only the depressor action, which is an apparent reversal. The interpretation then was that pressor activity (i.e., vasoconstriction) is the predominant effect of EP, and the vasodilation (i.e., blood pressure fall) appears when ergot blocks the vasoconstrictor component. Dale further established that excitatory responses of var-... 

In the following. Section 21.2 gives a brief historical overview. Section 21.3 surveys established semiempirical methods introduced before 1990, Section 21.4 addresses some more recent methodological developments. Section 21.5 presents selected recent applications, and Section 21.6 offers a summary and an outlook. 

Each chapter includes a brief historical overview of ion exchange and its applications. The authors also give a brief overview of these applications as well as review current experimental data on the subject. 

Progress in nanophotonics is shown to result essentially from the transfer of ideas and concepts from quantum solid state theory to optics. A brief historical overview of the principal nanophotonic concepts and its quantum counterparts is provided and the possible reasons are discussed why quantum effects are transferable to electromagnetism but not vice versa. 

At the creation of quantum physics, optical analogs did play an important role in formulation of new wave mechanics. Many years later, in the second half of the XX-th century, thorough examination of phenomena associated with wave propagation in solids and nanostructures, the quantum theory of solids made a distinguished impact on photonic engineering and understanding of principal nanophotonic issues. In this paper, a brief historical overview is provided in support of the above statement. 

It is fitting to begin this brief historical overview of chirality in organometallic and coordination chemistry with the name of Alfred Werner (1866-1919) who, as far back as 1893, applied van t Hoff and Le Bel s stereochemical ideas of the tetrahedral nature of the carbon atom to the structure of hexacoordinated metal complexes. He established their octahedral structure and predicted that some could exist in an enantiomeric form with the power of optical rotation. This prediction was followed in 1911 by the resolution of the two enantiomers of the complexes [Co (en)2(NH3)X]X2 (X = Cl, Br) (2.1)-X2 (en = ethylene diamine) (Figure 2.1). This overall work won him the Nobel Prize for Chemistry in 1913, following which he then went on to resolve the inorganic complex Co (OH)6[Co (NH3)4]3 Br6 (2.2)-Br6 (Figure 2.2). ... 

After this brief historical overview, we will now follow stepwise the path that opened the way to a rational understanding of chirality in the field of organometallic and coordination chemistry. 

This chapter will address the special considerations that apply to incorporating dense, hydrogen-permeable metal membranes into practical membrane modules for commercial and industrial use. It is organized to present a brief historical overview, a general review of hydrogen-permeable metal membranes, scale-up from laboratory test-and-evaluation membrane modules to commercial membrane modules, membrane module design and construction, and commercial applicability. 

After a brief historical overview, the various approaches to the scale-up of microwave chemistry will be discussed. This will be followed by a section detailing the current commercially available microwave reactors for scale-up. Practical applications and concerns will be addressed together with a discussion of reaction classes that work particularly well in microwave reactors. Chemistry that has been performed in the different available reactors will be presented in order to exan-plify particular techniques and practices, but the discussion will not attempt to be exhaustive since several other books and reviews have already attempted this." Attention here will be drawn to special features and uses. Further applications to demonstrate how microwave heating can be used as an investigative tool at the small scale for process chemists and others wiU foUow. In accordance with the main theme of sustainability of this book, the current hot topic of the energy efficiency of microwave heating will also be covered in this chapter. Recent developments in the area of pilot-scale microwave chemistry will be noted before the final conclusions. 

Our current discussion will, therefore, begin with a brief historical overview of metalloporphyrin electrochemishy and a list of previously utilized nonaqueous solvents and supporting electrolytes, which have been used in porphyrin studies. It will be followed by a general description... 

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