Whole blood lead

Bioavailability was assessed from measurement of the area under the curve (AUC) of whole blood lead concentration vs time (Blood AUC) or from measurements of the lead concentrations in bone, kidney or liver (the arithmetic mean of the three tissues is shown in the table). Data are from Casteel et al. (1997) and EPA (1996a, 1996b, 1996c). 

Many imported cosmetic agents contain lead. Not infrequently children will ingest these agents accidentally and may develop lead poisoning. It is, therefore, appropriate to measure the whole blood lead and erythrocyte protoporphyrin levels. 

Rose, G. A., and Willden, E. C., An improved method for the determination of whole blood lead by using an atomic-absorption technique. Analyst 98, 243-245 (1973). 

A. Specific levels. The whole-blood lead level is the most useful indicator of lead exposure. Relationships between blood lead levels and clinical findings have generally been based on subacute or chronic exposure and not on transiently high values that may result immediately after acute exposure. In addition, there may be considerable interindividual variability. Note Blood lead samples must be drawn and stored In lead-free syringes and tubes ( trace metals tube or royal blue stopper tube containing heparin or EDTA). 

All in gdl whole blood lead, arithmetic mean (M) and standard deviation (SD) By physical examination (Ballard, Novak and Driver, 1979)... 

Blood and plasma lead levels measured in the 19-21-day-old animals, and in pups taken at 7 and 14 days, are shown in Table 1. At 19-21 days, the whole-blood lead levels were in the range 20-90 jUg/dl and only at this time were plasma lead levels above the detection limit of 2 jUg/dl. 

R. W. "Determination of Lead In Whole Blood by Graphite Furnace Atomic Absorption Spectrophotometry". Amer. Ind. Hyg. Assoc. J. (1974), 566-570. 

Fernandez, F. J. "Micromethod for Lead Determination In Whole Blood by Atomic Absorption, With Use of the Graphite Furnace". Clin. Chem. (1975), 21, 558-561. 

Kubaslk, N. P., Volosln, M. T., and Murray, M. H. "Carbon Rod Atomizer Applied to Measurement of Lead In Whole Blood by Atomic Absorption Spectrophotometry . Clin. Chem. (1972), 18, 410-412. 

The most common method used to monitor inorganic Pb is the determination of Pb in whole blood by GF-AAS. Exposure to organic lead (i.e. tetraethyl lead) can be monitored by the determination of Pb in mine by GF-AAS (Christensen and Kristiansen 1994). Early effects of exposure to Pb on the heme synthesis can be monitored by determination of the inhibition of the enayme 8-aminolevulinic acid dehydratase in whole blood or 8-aminolevulinic acid in urine by spectrophotometry. 

A later analysis (Emhart et al. 1987) related PbB levels obtained at delivery (maternal and cord blood) and at 6 months, 2 years, and 3 years of age to developmental tests (MDI, PDI, Kent Infant Development Scale [KID], and Stanford-Binet IQ) administered at 6 months, 1 year, 2 years, and 3 years of age, as appropriate. After controlling for covariates and confounding risk factors, the only significant associations of blood lead with concurrent or later development were an inverse association between maternal (but not cord) blood lead and MDI, PDI, and KID at 6 months, and a positive association between 6-month PbB and 6-month KID. The investigators concluded that, taken as a whole, the results of the 21 analyses of correlation between blood lead and developmental test scores were "reasonably consistent with what might be expected on the basis of sampling variability," that any association of blood lead level with measures of development was likely to be due to the dependence of both PbB and... 

Blood and urine Mixing of urine sample with HN03 filtration, chelation of lead in whole blood or filtered urine with APDC, extraction with MIBK AAS (NIOSH Method 8003) 0.05 pg/g (blood) or 10 pg/mL (urine) 99 ( 10.8%) NIOSH 1984... 

Aguilera de Benzo Z, Fraile R, Carrion N, et al. 1989. Determination of lead in whole blood by electrothermal atomization atomic absorption spectrometry using tube and platform atomizers and dilution with Triton X-100. Journal of Analytical and Atmospheric Spectrometry 4 397-400. 

Cavalleri A, Minoia C. 1987. Lead level of whole blood and plasma in workers exposed to lead stearate. Scand J Work Environ Health 13 218-220. 

Delves HT, Campbell MJ. 1988. Measurements of total lead concentrations and of lead isotope ratios in whole blood by use of inductively coupled plasma source mass spectrometry. J Analytical Atomic Spectrometry 3 343-348. 

Sakai T, Morita Y. 1996. Delta-aminolevulinic acid in plasma or whole blood as a sensitive indicator of lead effects, and its relation to the other heme-related parameters. Int Arch Occup Environ Health 68(2) 126-132. 

Determination of lead in 70 pL samples of whole blood can be carried out in a few minutes by a procedure including treatment with a matrix-modifying solution containing hydrochloric acid, Hg(II) ions, Triton X-100 and Bi(III) as internal standard. After deposition of lead amalgam on a glassy carbon electrode by a pulsed potential cycle, analysis... 

Lead-exposed employees in the United States111, for example, must be removed from work if the average of their last three blood lead determinations is at or above 0.50 pgPbg-1 whole blood and if the airborne lead level is at or above 30 Agm-3. 

There is a great deal of interest in the determination of lead, particularly micromethods applicable to the analysis blood lead in children. Consequently, reports continue to appear on the atomic absorption determination of lead in blood and urine. Ninety percent of blood lead is found in the erythrocytes and, therefore, whole blood is analyzed rather than serum or plasma. Berman etal. 134) have described a procedure for determining normal lead levels in which only 250 fd of blood are taken. The blood is deproteinized with 1 ml of 10 % trichloroacetic acid and then the lead is extracted with APDC into 1 ml of MIBK, at pH 3.5. 

Stimulation for 24 hours with LPS leads to the release of interleukin-1 [3, IL-6, IL-8, TNF-a and by prolonging the incubation period from 48 to 72 hours, the whole blood model can detect the release of other lymphokines [45], including IL-2, IL-4, IL-13 and IFN-y. Skewing of the T-helper cell response to antigens can likewise be detected by evaluating the pattern of cytokine release, corresponding to a predominance of Th 1 or Th2 cytokine production. The predictive value of these approaches is currently under investigation. 

Zhou, Y., Parsons, P. J., Aldous, K. M., Brockman, P., and Slavin, W. (2001). Atomization of lead from whole blood using novel tungsten filaments in electrothermal atomic absorption spectrometry. Journal of Analytical Atomic Spectrometry 16 82-89. 

Blood and liver Treatment of HCN released from sample digestion with lead acetate and absorption with NaOH Specific ion electrode (total cyanide) 5 pg/L 100-109 (whole blood, 0.3-130 ppb) Egekeze and Oehme 1979... 

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