Water immiscible organic solvent

The majority of practical micellar systems of Tionnal micelles use water as tire main solvent. Reverse micelles use water immiscible organic solvents, altlrough tire cores of reverse micelles are usually hydrated and may contain considerable quantities of water. Polar solvents such as glycerol, etlrylene glycol, fonnamide and hydrazine are now being used instead of water to support regular micelles [10]. Critical fluids such as critical carbon dioxide are... 

Emulsives are solutions of toxicant in water-immiscible organic solvents, commonly at 15 ndash 50%, with a few percent of surface-active agent to promote emulsification, wetting, and spreading. The choice of solvent is predicated upon solvency, safety to plants and animals, volatility, flammabiUty, compatibihty, odor, and cost. The most commonly used solvents are kerosene, xylenes and related petroleum fractions, methyl isobutyl ketone, and amyl acetate. Water emulsion sprays from such emulsive concentrates are widely used in plant protection and for household insect control. 

The principle of solvent extraction in refining is as follows when a dilute aqueous metal solution is contacted with a suitable extractant, often an amine or oxime, dissolved in a water-immiscible organic solvent, the metal ion is complexed by the extractant and becomes preferentially soluble in the organic phase. The organic and aqueous phases are then separated. By adding another aqueous component, the metal ions can be stripped back into the aqueous phase and hence recovered. Upon the identification of suitable extractants, and using a multistage process, solvent extraction can be used to extract individual metals from a mixture. 

In almost all theoretical studies of AGf , it is postulated or tacitly understood that when an ion is transferred across the 0/W interface, it strips off solvated molecules completely, and hence the crystal ionic radius is usually employed for the calculation of AGfr°. Although Abraham and Liszi [17], in considering the transfer between mutually saturated solvents, were aware of the effects of hydration of ions in organic solvents in which water is quite soluble (e.g., 1-octanol, 1-pentanol, and methylisobutyl ketone), they concluded that in solvents such as NB andl,2-DCE, the solubility of water is rather small and most ions in the water-saturated solvent exist as unhydrated entities. However, even a water-immiscible organic solvent such as NB dissolves a considerable amount of water (e.g., ca. 170mM H2O in NB). In such a medium, hydrophilic ions such as Li, Na, Ca, Ba, CH, and Br are selectively solvated by water. This phenomenon has become apparent since at least 1968 by solvent extraction studies with the Karl-Fischer method [35 5]. Rais et al. [35] and Iwachido and coworkers [36-39] determined hydration numbers, i.e., the number of coextracted water molecules, for alkali and alkaline earth metal... 

Heterogeneous liquid-liquid media are attractive, particularly when the reaction involves water-soluble as well as sparingly water-soluble reactants [21-25]. The organic phase consists of the reactant alone or the reactant dissolved in a water-immiscible organic solvent. In other bioreactors, components are distributed differently between the phases. 

Several enzymes like lipases, esterases, and dehydrogenases have been active in hydrophobic environments. Thermodynamic water activity is a good predictor of the optimal hydration conditions for catalytic activity [51]. Enzyme preparation can be equilibrated at a specific water activity before the reaction [52]. When water concentration is very low, enzyme is suspended in the solid state in the water-immiscible organic solvent [46]. Enzymes are easily recovered after the reaction by the method of filtration. 

Direct emulsification A solution of the polymer within a volatile, water-immiscible organic solvent (or mixture of solvents), or a polymer melt is emulsified within a surfactant-containing aqueous phase. If used, the organic solvent is then removed by steam distillation to obtain the pseudolatices. 

A similar technique, the so-called spontaneous emulsification solvent diffusion method, is derived from the solvent injection method to prepare liposomes [161]. Kawashima et al. [162] used a mixed-solvent system of methylene chloride and acetone to prepare PLGA nanoparticles. The addition of the water-miscible solvent acetone results in nanoparticles in the submicrometer range this is not possible with only the water-immiscible organic solvent. The addition of acetone decreases the interfacial tension between the organic and the aqueous phase and, in addition, results in the perturbation of the droplet interface because of the rapid diffusion of acetone into the aqueous phase. 

Reaction is terminated by acetonitrile quenching, or by liquid-liquid extraction with water-immiscible organic solvent, provided that the extraction efficiency and the effect of the organic solvent on product stability are tested at the small scale. Based on properties of product, the pH of the reaction mixture should be adjusted before termination to allow maximal recovery of the product. For example, acid is usually added to the acyl-glucuronide product mixture at the end of the reaction to minimize acyl migration. 

Dias, A.C.P, Cabral, J.M.S. and Pinheiro, H.M. (1994) Sterol side-chain cleavage with immobilized Mycobacterium cells in water-immiscible organic solvents. Enzyme and Microbial Technology, 16, 708-714. 

The simplest technique is the use of the 96-well collection plate format (analogous to the format used in SPE) in conjunction with a liquid handling robotic system it follows the same principle as bulk scale LLE. However, immobilization of the aqueous plasma sample on an inert solid support medium packed in a cartridge or in the individual wells of a 96-well plate and percolating a water-immiscible organic solvent to extract the analyte from this medium evoked significant enthusiasm from the pharmaceutical industry. 

Figure 1.25 illustrates the principle underlying LLE in the solid-supported LLE format. In order to facilitate elution with a water-immiscible organic solvent, it is imperative that analytes are in their neutral form during sample load. Thus, for basic analytes, loading should be done in a high pH (9 to 10) buffer and for acidic analytes, a low pH (2 to 3) buffer. 

This method was first reported by Vanderhoff [82] for the preparation of artificial latexes. The polymer and drug are dissolved or dispersed in a volatile water-immiscible organic solvent, such as dichloromethane, chloroform, or ethyl acetate. This is emulsified in an aqueous continuous phase containing a surfactant, such as poly(vinylalcohol), to form nanodroplets. The organic solvent diffuses out of the nanodroplets into the aqueous phase and evaporates at the air/water interface, as illustrated in Figure 6. The solvent is removed under reduced pressure. The nanodroplets solidify and can be separated, washed, and dried to form a free-flowing powder. 

Subsequent finishing of the crude product typically involves heating the aqueous pigment suspension, frequently to temperatures of 100 to 150°C. The crude pigment slurry is thus heated under pressure. This technique may be varied to a certain extent. It is possible, for instance, to add or to exclusively use either water soluble or water immiscible organic solvents or to add surface-active nonionic, anionic, or cationic agents. 

Three-phase electrodes have been constracted in two major configurations. Most frequently, it consists of a paraffin-impregnated graphite electrode (GE) modified with a macroscopic droplet of a water immiscible organic solvent (O) (e.g., nitroben-... 

Moreover, nanoparticles can be prepared by precipitation in oil/water (o/w) emulsions [15]. Lipids dissolved in a water-immiscible organic solvent (e.g., cyclohexane) are... 

The use of liquid membranes in analytical applications has increased in the last 20 years. As is described extensively elsewhere (Chapter 15), a liquid membrane consists of a water-immiscible organic solvent that includes a solvent extraction extractant, often with a diluent and phase modifier, impregnated in a microporous hydrophobic polymeric support and placed between two aqueous phases. One of these aqueous phases (donor phase) contains the analyte to be transported through the membrane to the second (acceptor) phase. The possibility of incorporating different specific reagents in the liquid membranes allows the separation of the analyte from the matrix to be improved and thus to achieve higher selectivity. 

The liquid liquid partition chromatography (LLPQ method involves a stationary liquid phase that is more or less immobilized on a solid support, and a mobile liquid phase. The analyte is therefore distributed between the two liquid phases. In conventional LLPC systems, the stationary liquid phase is usually a polar solvent and the mobile liquid phase is an essentially water-immiscible organic solvent. On the other hand, in reversed-phase chromatography (RPQ, the stationary liquid is usually a hydrophobic... 

The process of transferring a metal ion M" from an aqueous solution to a water-immiscible organic solvent by an acidic chelating extractant HL that forms a lipophilic neutral complex ML with the ion can be represented as ... 

Alkaloids are found mainly in plants, and are nitrogenous bases, typically primary, secondary, or tertiary amines. The basic properties facilitate their isolation and purification. Water-soluble salts are formed in the presence of mineral acids (see Section 4.11.1), and this allows separation of the alkaloids from any other compounds that are neutral or acidic. It is a simple matter to take a plant extract in a water-immiscible organic solvent, and to extract this solution with aqueous acid. Salts of the alkaloids are formed, and, being water soluble, these transfer to the aqueous acid phase. On basifying the acid phase, the alkaloids revert back to an uncharged form, and may be extracted into fresh organic solvent. 

Lipases exhibit high catalytic activity in water, an even higher activity in a two-phase system, such as water/water-immiscible organic solvent, and in water-immiscible organic solvents of low water content86-88,90. This allows for the attainment of favorable equilibria in asymmetric hydrolysis and esterification reactions catalyzed by lipases. They are used to their greatest... 

In such systems, biotransformations are generally carried out in a reaction medium composed of an aqueous phase containing the biocatalyst and a water-immiscible organic solvent which may be the substrate itself to be converted [21] or may serve as a reservoir for substrates and products [22] (Fig. 24.2). In these conditions, a constant substrate feeding in the aqueous phase is obtained owing to the partition coefficient. The substrate is used by the biocatalyst to be converted into the product of interest, which is then continuously extracted into the organic phase. 

Partitioning between water and water-immiscible organic solvents is thus a straightforward way to get quantitative data for predicting solvent effects on the conversion of a certain substrate. However, the method is not applicable to water-miscible solvents. An alternative way to quantify solvation is to carry out theoretical calculation of interactions between the various components in the reaction mixture. 

The breakthrough came with the employment of water-immiscible organic solvents, where the undesired chemical reaction is more or less suppressed... 

The next step was the addition of water-immiscible organic solvents to give biphasic systems in which the biocatalysts were still solubilized in water and the organic phase was acting both as a substrate reservoir and a product extractor. Again the outcome was surprisingly positive, in some cases allowing inhibition of substrate(s) and/or product(s) to be overcome. This happened in the seventies. 

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