Upper-bound limit

If an upper bound of 10-4 is adopted for maximum individual risk, from single events, then occupants of Building 2 are at, or slightly above, the upper-bound limit, while occupants of Building 3 appear to be in a region of tolerable risk. Also, from inspection of the data, it appears the individual risk to occupants of both buildings is almost 30 times greater from Process Unit 2 than from Process Unit 1. 

For the range of human doses illustrated in Figure 8.1 (Close-up) we would say that the upper bound on excess lifetime cancer risk lies in the range of 0.000 000 8 (8 in 10 million, or 8x10 ) to 0.000 008 (8 in one million, or 8xl0 ). Actual risks are unknown, bnt are not likely to exceed these upper bound limits. Excess lifetime cancer risk means the risk incurred over a full lifetime above that incurred in the absence of exposure to the carcinogen. 

The first and second terms represent violations of upper and lower bounds, respectively. The third term, independently weighted by an arbitrary w, represents violations of van der Waals radii. Step functions 0, p, cr, and t are then applied to turn each term on or off as appropriate. Thus, if a bound is violated, 0 = 1 otherwise it is zero. To define the subsets, p( i,j) = 1 if i,j are in the subset of upper bounds limited by k otherwise it is zero. Similarly, if the relevant atoms are within k residues of each other, a( i,j) = 1. If the atoms are within / residues of each other, t( i,j) = 1 otherwise it too is zero. 

Figure 2-15 Modulus of the Composite Gel (Gq) Plotted Against Volume Fraction of Component y (G = 10,000). When the weaker component (x, G = 1,000 Pa) dominates and becomes the continuous phase, Gc follows the lower bound isostress limit, with increasing fraction of r, there will be a phase inversion and Gc reaches the upper bound limit, path indicated by open circles.

In certain cases, the FDA has applied a negligible risk concept for food additives. This is demonstrated in the case of dimethyl dicarbamate, a yeast inhibitor for use in beverages (FDA 2000). The additive evenmaUy decomposes to methanol and carbon dioxide, but in the presence of ammonium ions (not uncommon in certain beverages) a carcinogenic chemical may also be formed in small amounts. The FDA used formal quantitative risk assessment procedures to estimate the upper-bound limit of carcinogenic risk to humans posed by urethane generated by decomposition of the additive. It was concluded that the potential risk was sufficiently low that the additive would be safe for the requested use, and the FDA s final rule approved its use (56 FR 40502 1988). 

An evaluation of the levels of expected and potential airborne contamination levels can be based on source term characterization analyses conducted for other DBA s such as the process spill evaluation. Normally, less than 1% of a target s iodine inventory is expected to be released to the SCB during processing. Under abnormal conditions, up to 100% of the iodine inventory may be released to the SCB. These values can be used as conservative upper bound limits on the potential iodine concentration in the SCB. The radiological inventories used in this analysis are based on the inventory of a maximally irradiated target. 

The upper bound (limit) defines levels of risk that are intolerable. 

Most of the research work has been focused on polymer membrane materials involving a solution-diffusion mechanism. The performances of such materials generally fall within the trade-off relationship between permeability and selectivity suggested by Robeson [5], with an upper bound limit for the membrane performances. 

In recent years, fluorinated PAs have been explored for gas separation, for PV, and as PEMs in fuel cell application. The high mechanical strength and the film-forming ability of fluorinated PAs have endowed this class of polymers to be used in membrane-based application. In general, a combination of >C(CF3>2 or -CF3 groups and sterically hindered moieties in the same polymer structure has showed improved results in terms of permeability and permselectivity. It is noteworthy to observe that fluorinated PAs containing groups like tert-butyl, adamantyl, te(phenyl)fluorene, and to(phenylphenyl)fluorene showed excellent separation performance for O2/N2 gas pairs and touched or even exceeded the upper bound limit drawn by... 

It has been observed that membranes of carbon molecular sieves can exceed the upper bound of conventional polymeric membranes. The carbon molecular sieve membranes are produced by carbonization of aromatic polymers (e.g., polyimides), yielding pore dimensions in the range of O2 and N2 molecular dimensions. Polyimide/poly(vinyl pyrrolidone) blends subjected to carbonization conditions also yielded carbon molecular sieve membranes that exceeded the upper bound limit for conventional polymeric membranes [195, 196]. Specific values were O2 permeability of 560-810 barrers with a O2/N2 separation factors of 10-7 well above the upper bound. 

With regard to kinematic approach, when the structure presents an enough number of hinges to transform it into a mechanism (Fig. 4b), the load factor obtained by equating the work of the external loads to zero corresponds to an upper bound limit (upper bound theorem). The load obtained from the kinematic approach is greater than or equal to the failure load. Different positions for the hinges on the structure can be adopted, and several mechanisms, and respective load factors, can be found. The mechanism that presents the lowest load factor corresponds to the collapse mechanism. Thus, the kinematic approach presents also several solutions. 

Using the upper bound limit analysis theorem, the theoretical study of three-dimensionat failure modes can be provided for the case of plate cutting. In general, there is a satisfactory agreement between theoretical predictions and experimental measurements. However, the indentification of proper failure modes may be more difficult since theoretical modes are too simplified. The modes of Fig.10 provide better predictions and are now studied. Though, applicability of limit analysis to study of failure modes in brittle materials is questionable, it nevertheless provides an useful information on values of limit loads and also provides a tool for indentifiction of proper failure modes. 

Despite all the advantages, polymeric membranes eannot overcome the polymer upper-bound limit between permeability and selectivity. On the other hand, some inorganie membranes sueh as zeolite and carbon molecular sieve membranes oIFct mueh higher permeability and selectivity than polymeric membranes but are expensive and difficult for large-scale manufacture. Therefore, it is highly desirable to provide an alternate eost-effeclive membrane in a position above the trade-off curves between permeability and seleelivity. 

In Figure 35.12a the separation characteristics of XLPEO are compared to the performance of cellulose acetate (CA) (Lin et al., 2006b). Mixed-gas CO2/CH4 selectivity values in XLPEO are similar to those in CA, but XLPEO is more than an order of magnitude more permeable to C02- At 253 K, the separation performance of XLPEO at high CO2 partial pressure exceeds the Robeson (1991) upper bound limit. Similar performance can be observed in Figures 35.12b and c for CO2/N2 and CO2/O2, respectively. In these cases. 

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