THE STUDY OF CHEMISTRY

Chemistry is at the heart of many changes we see in the world around us, and it accounts for the myriad of different properties we see in matter. To understand how these changes and properties arise, we need to look far beneath the surfaces of our everyday observations. 

1 THE STUDY OF CHEMISTRY We begin with a brief description of what chemistry is. what chemists do. and why it is useful to learn chemistry. 

2 CLASSIFICATIONS OF MATTER Next, we examine some fundamental ways to classify matter, distinguishing between pure substances and mixtures and between elements and compounds. 

3 PROPERTIES OF MATTER We then consider different characteristics, or properties, used to characterize, identify, and separate substances, distinguishing between chemical and physical properties. 

4 UNITS OF MEASUREMENT We observe that many properties rely on quantitative measurements involving numbers and units. The units of measurement used throughout science are those of the metric system. 

In This Chapter, You Will Learn some of what chemistry is and how it is studied using the scientific method. You will leam about the system of units used by scientists and about expressing and dealing with the numbers that result from scientific measurements. 

Media Player/ MPEG Content Chapter in Review 

The Epidemic Memorial masks, on display at the Washington State History Museum in Tacoma, Washington, were created by five Native American artists. They represent the effects of smallpox and other diseases on the Native American population. 

Before traveling to an unfamiliar dty, you might look at a map to get some sense of where you are heading. Because chemistry may be unfamiliar to you, it s useful to get a general idea of vdiat lies ahead before you embark on your journey. In fact, you might even ask why you are taking the trip. 

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Training in each of these fields provides a unique perspective to the study of chemistry. Undergraduate chemistry courses and textbooks are more than a collection of facts they are a kind of apprenticeship. In keeping with this spirit, this text introduces the field of analytical chemistry and the unique perspectives that analytical chemists bring to the study of chemistry. 

Having noted that each field of chemistry brings a unique perspective to the study of chemistry, we now ask a second deceptively simple question. What is the analytical perspective Many analytical chemists describe this perspective as an analytical approach to solving problems. Although there are probably as many descriptions of the analytical approach as there are analytical chemists, it is convenient for our purposes to treat it as a five-step process ... 

Chemistry is an important part of what is called science. Since every phase of our daily life is affected by the fruits of scientific activity, we all should know what scientific activity is, what it can do, and how it works. The study of chemistry will help you learn these things. 

But the periodic system is so fundamental, pervasive and familiar in the study of chemistry that it is often taken for granted. A century after the death of the leading discoverer of the periodic system, the Russian chemist Dimitri Mendeleev, it seems time to revisit the origins and modem status of this now-standard chemical classification. There were a number of historic precursors to Mendeleev s periodic system. But there are also current ongoing debates regarding the best way to display the periodic system, and whether there is really a "best way" of doing so. 

Chemical processes are central to the study of chemistry. The thermodynamic principles and relationships we have developed provide powerful tools for describing these processes, especially in predicting the spontaneity of the process and the equilibrium conditions that apply. 

Why Do We Need to Know This Material The dynamic equilibrium toward which every chemical reaction tends is such an important aspect of the study of chemistry that four chapters of this book deal with it. We need to know the composition of a reaction mixture at equilibrium because it tells us how much product we can expect. To control the yield of a reaction, we need to understand the thermodynamic basis of equilibrium and how the position of equilibrium is affected by conditions such as temperature and pressure. The response of equilibria to changes in conditions has considerable economic and biological significance the regulation of chemical equilibrium affects the yields of products in industrial processes, and living cells struggle to avoid sinking into equilibrium. 

The study of chemistry deals essentially with three main aspects the macroscopic approach, the representational/symbolic dimension and the submicroscopic level of thinking (Johnstone, 1991, 2007). This chapter considers the role of the macroscopic component, taking also into account the other two levels. 

These two emphases are placed in a curriculum at the behest of academic chemists, education officials, and mai r chemistiy teachers, who wish to ensure that students are equipped to continue with the study of chemistry. These emphases have been collectively called wish-they-knew-chemistiy (Aikenhead, 2006 Fensham, 2000). 

It is generally agreed that the study of chemistry in the classical world originated in Hellenistic Egypt. But how it arose, for what purpose the chemical experiments were performed, and what sort of legacy these left to the European West, are matters that have never been fully understood. In this new examination of the evidence, particular attention has been paid to the apparent ritual use of experiments in what became known as the Divine and Sacred Art, and to the transmission of the recipe literature."... 

Eastman Kodak Co. Historical introduction to the study of chemistry / Eastman Kodak Co., Teaching Films Division made in cooperation with the Film Committee of the Chemistry Teacher s Club of New York. Eastman Kodak Co., Teaching Films Division, 1937 ... 

The total mass of the ash plus the carbon dioxide plus the water vapor is equal to the total mass of the log plus the oxygen. As always, the law of conservation of matter is obeyed as precisely as chemists can measure. The law of conservation of mass is fundamental to the understanding of chemical reactions. Other laws related to the behavior of matter are equally important, and learning how to apply these laws correctly is a necessary goal of the study of chemistry. 

In the study of chemistry the results of observations on the transformations and properties of many materials are encountered. Schemes that provide structure to the information concerning this type of chemistry go a long way toward systematizing its study. One such approach is that of the chemistry of acids and bases. Closely related to the chemistry of acids and bases is the study of solvents other than water, the chemistry of nonaqueous solvents (see Chapter 10). In this chapter, several areas of acid-base chemistry and their application to reactions of inorganic substances will be described. 

Astrochemistry The study of chemistry away from the Earth. 

One of the central objectives of the study of chemistry is sufficient knowledge to permit the forecast of the chemical and physical properties of a substance directly and reliably from its structure. This objective has been achieved to a remarkable degree for the host of isolable compounds that have been prepared and investigated. These findings have been codified in generalizing... 

It is hoped that the book may prove useful to those engaged in the study of chemistry, and more particularly of colloidal chemistry, either from its biological or from its purely chemical aspect. 

The study of chemistry, like most sciences, involves active participation by the student. We suggest briefly reading in your textbook the lecture material for the day, taking good notes in class, perhaps copying those notes as quickly after class as possible, and then read the material in depth and work problems. This book is designed to help you grasp the basic concepts and to help you learn how to work the problems associated with the material. These specific tips will help you in your study of chemistry. 

The definition given in the last section is very general. Although all chemists are involved in the study of matter, the field is so broad that it helps to divide chemistry into divisions. These divisions characterize different aspects of the study of chemistry using some common feature. Chemistry may... 

By the start of the seventeenth century, the stage had been set for transformation in the study of chemistry. Up to this time, chemistry played a central role in the arts and crafts, but as a science, it had made only modest advances from the days of Aristotle. This started to change as individuals adopted a scientific approach and subjected the ideas of Aristotle to experimental testing. By 1700, the walls of unquestioned authority concerning scientific thought had been shattered by individuals such as Galileo, Isaac Newton, and Francis Bacon. The time was now ripe for rapid changes in the study of chemistry. 

The notion of atoms arrived in the East, ancient India, prior to its appearance in the West, the ancient Mediterranean (Greek) world. Both societies were polytheistic, and philosopher-chemists dominated the study of chemistry. Atomic concepts were based upon philosophical considerations and not experimental observations. No exchange on atomism between these two regions in this ancient time has been detected, indicating that these concepts were developed independently ). These developments occurred dming Period I of the Ancient Regime of Chemistry (—10,000 BCE - —100 BCE), which may be called the... 

No Englishman took a more prominent part in the discoveries in pneumatic chemistry than did Joseph Priestley. Without training in science, unfamiliar with the previous work of chemists in general, Priestley took up the study of chemistry as an amateur, but with great enthusiasm, a decided talent for experimental devices, and... 

The remaining sections of this chapter introduce some physical quantities important to the study of chemistry. In the spirit of the atomic and molecular... 

As you enter the study of chemistry, you can do no better than to repeat for yourself some of the experiments that Air. Faraday demonstrated to his voting audience. 

Two important questions asked in the study of chemistry are (1) "Will a reaction take place when you mix reactants A and B and (2) "How do you prepare a given compound, X "... 

It s sometimes possible when beginning the study of chemistry to forget that reactions are at the heart of the science. New words,... 

The following list suggests practical exercises that could be used to both support the assessment objectives given above and enrich the study of chemistry in addition, it should suggest plenty of opportunities for the enhancement and assessment of practical skills. The list is neither exhaustive nor prescriptive the actual selection of practical work, whether from this list or from elsewhere, has to be governed by local factors such as the facilities available, safety considerations and the ability of the class. 

In the study of chemistry, the properties and composition of matter are investigated, along with the nature of electromagnetic radiation and how it affects matter. Electromagnetic radiation is radiant energy that exhibits wave properties and travels at the speed of light (when in a vacuum). 

In the study of chemistry, the atom is the basic structure of matter and protons, electrons, and neutrons are basic subatomic particles. In the study of art, design is the basis of an artistic arrangement, and color is one element of design. The design of a work of art includes not only color but also line, texture, light and dark contrast, and shape. However, color is the element of design that arouses the most appreciation and is the element to which we are most sensitive. Even one who is puzzled by modem art usually finds its color exciting and attractive. One may question the use of distortion of shape but will seldom object to the use of color and may like a work of art solely for its use of color. 

The book comes at a good time because currently there is a great deal of interest in elementary and middle/junior high school science improvement. The authors have provided an ideal way to support the study of chemistry, both in the elementary and middle/junior high schools and in the home. 

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