Your Textbook

Lecture If you know the topic of the next lecture, scan that topic in your textbook beforehand. Listen carefully during the lecture and take good notes. Review, revise, and clarify your lecture notes as soon after the lecture as humanly possible. Studies have shown that about half of what is presented in lecture is not learned if you wait more than 24 hours to study your lecture notes. If you wait a week, you will retain about 35%. The same studies show that about 90% of the lecture material is retained if you review the lecture the same day. It is a huge waste of time to postpone studying and learning from your lecture notes. 

Textbook This book contains many learning aids. Become familiar with them and use them. The next section describes them. 

OWL OWL is a valuable and flexible web-based homework system and assessment tool. Using a question-creation format that varies the amount and type of chemical substance for each online session, OWL can generate more than 100,000 chemistry questions correlated to the book. Instant feedback helps you immediately assess your progress. OWL is available for use only within North America.) 

Introductory Chemistry Now This powerful online companion helps you manage and maximize the efficiency of your study time. Here you will find interactive resources that cannot be included in a conventional textbook, such as full-motion videos, three-dimensional molecular models, and particulate-level animations. 

Laboratory If your course includes a laboratory, learn what each experiment is designed to teach. Relate the experiment to the lecture and textbook coverage of the same topic. Seeing something in the laboratory is often just what you need to fully understand what you read in the textbook and hear in the lecture. 

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First, open your textbook and flip through the pages in the second half. Choose any bond-line drawing and make sure that you can say with confidence how many carbon atoms you see and how many hydrogen atoms are attached to each of those carbon atoms. 

For the next set of problems, you should get to the point where you can do these problems very quickly. The first few will take you longer than the last ones. If the last problem is still taking you a long time, then you have not mastered the process and you will need more practice. If this is the case, open to any page in the second half of your textbook. You will probably see drawings of structures. Point... 

There are two other ways to attach four carbon atoms to a parent chain (other than butyl and tert-hutyl). As a small assignment, see if you can find their names in your textbook. 

This is very different from the case with single bonds, which are freely rotating aU of the time. But a double bond is the result of overlapping p orbitals, and double bonds cannot freely rotate at room temperature (if you had trouble with this concept when you first learned it, you should review the bonding structure of a double bond in your textbook or notes). So there are two ways to arrange the atoms in space cis and trans. If you compare which atoms are connected to each other in each of the two possibilities, yon will notice that all of the atoms are connected in the same order. The difference is how they are connected in 3D space. This is why they are called stereoisomers (this type of isomerism stems from a difference of orientation in space— stereo ). 

For practice, make a list of the answers to problems 5.57-5.66. This list should just be names. Wait a few days until you cannot remember what the structures looked like and then ny to draw them based on the names. You can also use your textbook for more examples. 

From this point on, I will assume that I can say names like 2-hexanol and you will know what I mean. That is what your textbook will do as weU, so now is the time to master nomenclature. 

An interesting case of conformational analysis comes to play when we consider a six-membered ring (cyclohexane). There are many conformations that this compound can adopt. You will see them all in your textbook the chair, the boat, the twist-boat. The most stable conformation of cyclohexane is the chair. We call it a chair, because when you draw it, it looks like a chair ... 

There are, of course, other polar aprotic solvents. You should look through your textbook and your class notes to determine if there are any other polar aprotic solvents that you will be expected to know. If there are any more, you can add them to the drawing above. You should learn to recognize these solvents when you see them. 

Clearly, we must be able to predict when to expect a carbocation rearrangement. There are two common ways for a carbocation to rearrange either through a hydride shift or through a methyl shift. Your textbook will have examples of each. Carbocation rearrangements are possible for any reaction that involves an intermediate carbocation (not just for addition of HX across an alkene). Later in this chapter, we will see other addition reactions that also proceed through carbocation intermediates. In those cases, you will be expected to know that there will be a possibility for carbocation rearrangements. 

If you have not yet learned about tosylates in your lecture course, you might want to consult your textbook for more information on tosylates. 

Peroxy acids will react with an aUcene to form an epoxide. The mechanism is somewhat complicated, and may or may not be in your textbook, depending on which textbook you are using. 

Notice that the stereochemistry and regiochemistry needs to work out for every step. You cannot use a step that has the wrong stereochemistry or regiochemistry. I suppose you could have memorized all possible two-step syntheses from the reactions in your textbook, and then you would have gotten this problem right away (maybe. . . ), but that is not a practical approach. What will you do for three-step or four-step syntheses You need to get accustomed to thinking backward. The more practice you can get, the better off you will be. 

Your teacher will provide you with copies of an answer sheet to use when answering the questions provided for each chapter of your textbook. To keep track of your answers, you should always fill in the chapter number for the set of review questions you are answering. Every chapter has between eight and eleven review questions, so not every row of answer bubbles will always be used. 

Remember, this workbook should not be used as an alternative to reviewing the material in your textbook. The questions are designed to ensure that you are fully tested on the NSCS objectives that relate to chemistry. This workbook will be of greatest advantage to you when used as a refresher after you have reviewed each chapter in the textbook. Your teacher should decide how this workbook could best be used to strengthen your skills and overall knowledge of chemistry. 

Read about the gold foil experiment in your textbook. Describe the plum-pudding atomic model. How did the gold foil experiment show the plumpudding model to be in error Describe the nuclear atomic model that replaced the plumpudding model. 

Using a suitable reference, such as your textbook, record the known values for K and Ca in Data Table 3. Also record the predicted values for K and Ca from Data Table 1 and Data Table 2 in Data Table 3. Compare the accuracy of Method 1 and Method 2 for predicting the properties of K and Ca. Identify the best method to use for predicting each property. 

Using a suitable reference, such as your textbook, locate the known value for the indicated property and record it in Data Table 4. 

Use an electronegativity table (see page 169 in your textbook) to determine the electronegativity difference between the two elements in the compounds in Data Table 2. 

Read over the entire laboratory activity. Use the periodic table in your textbook to answer the following questions. 

One of the most important uses of oxidation numbers is in balancing redox (oxidation-reduction) equations. These equations can get very complicated, and a systematic method of balancing them is essential. There are many such methods, however, and each textbook seems to use its own. There are many similarities among the methods, however, and the following discussion will help no matter what method your instructor and your textbook use. 

Of course, this method works for people who don t have math anxiety, too. Maybe you have simply forgotten a lot of what you learned about math because you haven t had to use it much. Or maybe you re a student tackling arithmetic, algebra, and geometry for the first time, and you just need more practice than your textbook gives you. Perhaps you re getting ready for an exam, and you just want to make sure your math skills are up to the task. Whatever your situation, you can benefit from the method of this book. That old maxim really is true Practice makes perfect. 

Buy a test preparation guide that has every conceivable type of problem in it and that in many cases is thicker than your textbook and that you will never be able to finish and that does not explain how to do well on the essay portion of the exam and does not review all of the laboratory experiments required and tested. 

There are no alternative ways of positioning electrons around the HI molecule. If you missed this question, refer to your textbook on the concept of resonance. 

D) Whether you can answer this question depends on whether you are acquainted with what is known as the Maxwell-Boltzmann distribution. This distribution describes the way that molecular speeds or energies are shared among the molecules of a gas. If you missed this question, examine the following figure and refer to your textbook for a complete description of the Maxwell-Boltzmann distribution. 

IR interpretation can be as simple or as complicated as you d like to make it. You ve already seen how to distinguish alcohols from ketones by correlation of the positions and intensities of various peaks in your spectrum with positions listed in IR tables or correlation tables. This is a fairly standard procedure and is probably covered very well in your textbook. The things that are not in your text are... 

Chemistry is full of calculations. Our basic goal is to help you develop the knowledge and strategies you need to solve these problems. In this chapter, you will review the Metric system and basic problem solving techniques, such as the Unit Conversion Method. Your textbook or instructor may call this problem solving method by a different name, such as the Factor-Label Method and Dimensional Analysis. Check with your instructor or textbook as to for which SI (Metric) prefixes and SI-English relationships will you be responsible. Finally, be familiar with the operation of your calculator. (A scientific calculator will be the best for chemistry purposes.) Be sure that you can correctly enter a number in scientific notation. It would also help if you set your calculator to display in scientific notation. Refer to your calculator s manual for information about your specific brand and model. Chemistry is not a spectator sport, so you will need to Practice, Practice, Practice. 

The study of chemistry, like most sciences, involves active participation by the student. We suggest briefly reading in your textbook the lecture material for the day, taking good notes in class, perhaps copying those notes as quickly after class as possible, and then read the material in depth and work problems. This book is designed to help you grasp the basic concepts and to help you learn how to work the problems associated with the material. These specific tips will help you in your study of chemistry. 

Another way to determine what is undergoing oxidation and what is undergoing reduction is by looking at the change in oxidation numbers of the reactant species. Oxidation occurs when there is an increase in oxidation number. In the example above, the Zn metal went from an oxidation state of 0 to +2. Reduction occurs when there is a decrease in oxidation number. Cu2+ went from an oxidation state of +2 to 0. In order to determine if a particular reaction is a redox reaction, determine the oxidation numbers of each element in the reaction. If at least one element changes oxidation number, it is a redox reaction. Refer to your textbook for rules in assigning oxidation numbers. 

We may predict many redox reactions of metals by using an activity series. An activity series lists reactions showing how various metals and hydrogen oxidize in aqueous solution. Elements at the top of the series are more reactive (active) than elements below. A reaction occurs when an element interacts with a cation of an element lower in the series. The more active elements have a stronger tendency to oxidize than the less active elements. The less active elements tend to reduce instead of oxidize. The reduction reactions are the reverse of the oxidation reactions given in the activity series table, Table 4-1. This is an abbreviated table. Refer to your textbook for a more complete table. 

Calorimetry involves the use of a laboratory instrument called a calorimeter. Two types of calorimeters are commonly used, a simple coffee-cup calorimeter and a more sophisticated bomb calorimeter. In both, we carry out a reaction with known amounts of reactants and the change in temperature is measured. Check your textbook for pictures of one or both of these. 

Crystalline solids display a very regular ordering of the particles in a three-dimensional structure called the crystal lattice. In this crystal lattice there are repeating units called unit cells. See your textbook for diagrams of unit cells. 

The "g" subscript, which may not appear in this equation in your textbook, is a reminder to focus only on the mole of jas present in the equilibrium reaction. 

The greater the amount of dissociation, the larger the value of the Ka. Refer to your textbook for a table of Ka values. 

Our goal in this chapter is to help you understand how to balance redox equations, know the different types of electrochemical cells, and how to solve electrolysis problems. Have your textbook handy—you may need to find some information in electrochemical tables. We will be using the mole concept, so if you need some review refer to Chapter 3, especially the mass/mole relationships. You might also need to review the section concerning net-ionic equations in Chapter 4. And don t forget to Practice, Practice, Practice. 

In the discussion of the Daniell cell, we indicated that this cell produces a voltage of 1.10 V. This voltage is really the difference in potential between the two half-cells. The cell potential (really the half-cell potentials) is dependent upon concentration and temperature, but initially we ll simply look at the half-cell potentials at the standard state of 298 K (25°C) and all components in their standard states (1M concentration of all solutions, 1 atm pressure for any gases and pure solid electrodes). Half-cell potentials appear in tables as the reduction potentials, that is, the potentials associated with the reduction reaction. We define the hydrogen half-reaction (2H+(aq) + 2e - H2(g)) as the standard and has been given a value of exactly 0.00 V. We measure all the other half-reactions relative to it some are positive and some are negative. Find the table of standard reduction potentials in your textbook. 

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