The Scientific Approach to Knowledge

Observations often lead scientists to formulate a hypothesis, a tentative interpretation or explanation of the observations. For example, Lavoisier explained his observations on combustion by hypothesizing that when a substance bums, it combines with a component of air. A good hypothesis is falsifiable, which means that it makes predictions that can be confirmed or refuted by further observations. Scientists test hypotheses by experiments, highly controlled procedures designed to generate observations that may confirm or refute a hypothesis. The results of an experiment may support a hypothesis or prove it wrong— in which case the scientist must modily or discard the hypothesis. 

In some cases, a series of similar observations leads to the development of a scientific law, a brief statanent that summarizes past observations and predicts future ones. Lavoisier summarized his observations on combustion with the law of conservation of mass, which states, In a chonical reaction, matter is neither created nor destroyed. This statement summarized his observations on chanical reactions and predicted the outcome of future observations on reactions. Laws, like hypotheses, are also subject to experiments, which can support them or prove than wrong. 

Scientific laws are not laws in the same sense as civil or governmental laws. Nature does not follow laws in the way that we obey the laws against speeding or running a stop sign. Rather, scientific laws describe how nature behaves— Ihey are generalizations about what nature does. For that reason, some people find it more appropriate to refer to them as principles rather than laws. 

Although some Greek philosophers, such as Aristotle, did use ohservatlon to attain knowledge, they did not emphasize experiment and measurement to the extent that modern science does. 

A A painting of the French chemist Antoine Lavoisier with his wife, 

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Describe the scientific approach to knowledge. How does it differ from other approaches ... 

Recall the discussion of the scientific approach to knowledge from Chapter 1. The theory that aU matter is composed of atoms grew out of observations and laws. The three most important laws that led to the development and acceptance of the atomic theory are the law of conservation of mass, the law of definite proportions, and the law of multiple proportions. 

Most of the applications of artificial intelligence in chemistry so far have not involved numerical computation as a primary goal. Yet there are aspects of the AI approach to problem-solving which have relevance to computation. In scientific computation, one could view the knowledge base as the set of equations, input variable values, and unit conversions relevant to the problem, and the inference engine the numerical method used to solve the equations. This paper describes such a software system,... 

It might be argued that not being limited by profound knowledge of, or belief in the known laws of nature (it is the feebleness of our understanding of those laws that make the purely scientific approach to innovation impractical. . . ), it is really the unusual thinkers such as science-fiction writers - people like Jules Verne come to mind - who take the lead in expanding our minds with respect to new materials functions and applications, as well as entirely new concepts for food, shelter, safety, transportation and communication. 

As will be seen in the following sections, the newly achieved scientific knowledge seems to support some of the ancient traditions by reaffirming the effects and properties described in yesterday s folklore. At the same time, a few of the qualities seem to be based on superstitions and religious beliefs that are no longer valid, and thus, most likely will never be proven by a scientific approach to the subject. 

To do research is basically to generate knowledge which is made available to the scientific community via publication. The main aim is that other scientists will be convinced by the scientific approach and they can adopt the strategy or scientific principle for answering their own research questions. Thus, criteria for good to excellent biosensor research have to be measured in terms of the following questions ... 

The traditional scientific approach to pharmaceutical safety assessment was based largely on the concept of xenobiotic-mediated direct injury to the whole animal, organ, tissue, or cell manifested by death altered function or modified growth rates. As scientific knowledge advanced, it became apparent that a variety of mechanisms were involved including direct injury to cellular macromolecules (e.g., DNA, RNA, proteins) or organelles (e.g., mitochondria, endoplasmic reticulum), adaptive responses (e.g., induction or inhibition of cyto-... 

A basic study of the chemical composition and structure of two soapstone samples to improve scientific knowledge of this marvelous mineral is reported here. An investigation about the effects of a sulfuric acid aqueous solution on the physical integrity of the stone is also performed to provide some clues as to the main causes of corrosion (acid rain), and so to the possible approach to avoiding it. Since the acid attack begins at the surface, it is the surface chemical composition and structure that controls the acid corrosion. 

Likewise practitioners will find it helpful to understand the logic behind the scientific approach scientific questions are initially practical questions asked in different ways, often by (over)simplifying they must be innovative and should not aim merely to apply or adapt tried-and-tested ideas they are not therefore confined to experiments designed to test a given technique protocols must be rigorous results may be unexpeeted and even contrary to what was hoped for they may sometimes be of little immediate benefit and they may take a long time to acquire finally scientific knowledge is universal in character and must be certified by academic publication if it is to exist at all. 

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