The measure of information

The TV News service presents a series of information items each evening. What kind of selection criteria are used by the TV managers One of possible answers is that, for a given time period, they maximize the amount information given. A particular news bulletin contains a large amount of information, if it does not represent trivial common knowledge, but instead reports some unexpected facts. Claude Shaimon defined the amount of information in a news bulletin as 

Claude Elwood Shannon (1916-2001), American mathematician, prolessor at the Mcissachusetts Institute of Technology, his prof sional life was associated with the Bell Laboratories. His idea, now so obvious, that information may be transmitted as a sequence of 0 and 1 was shocking in 1948. It was said that Shannon used to understand problems in zero Hm.  

Claude Shannon introduced the notion of the average information associated with all possible N results of an event in the usual way 

At a given instant we estimate the probabilities of all possible results of an event (we compute Ho), then reliable information arrives and the estimation changes (we compute the information entropy in the new situation Hf). Then, according to Shannon the measure of the information received is 

Example 1. Information flow in transcription. The sequence of three DNA bases codon (there are four bases possible A,TG,C), or a codon, codes for a single amino 

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Using formulas 3 and 4 the graph ean folded down to a single branch with two nodes and the CF of this branch will be the sought value of the certainty factor of a hypothesis. We assume that such CF coefficient is the measure of information quality IQ. In this work only formula 3 was used because model was only parallel (Shortliffe Buchanan 1984, Heckerman 1992, Stawowy 2013). 

There are different possibilities to address the above set of equations which can be solved provided 2in > 3i, and provided the measured ToF information varies between measurement points. For the purpose of the present work we have taken two simplifying assumptions (a) one virtual source predominates at each measurement point, m and (b) each virtual source predominates at more than one measurement point. Note that assumption (b) ensures the condition 2m > 3i that is necessary to obtain solutions for Equations (2) and (3). These assumptions are justified by considering the defect surface as an acoustic secondary field source. At each measurement point the transducer predominantly receives signals from an... 

A common known method to get eddy-current informations about material flaws is the measurement of real- and imaginary part of the complex impedance of a coil in absolute circuit. The measurement, shown in this paper, are done with an impedance analyzer (HP4192A). The device measures the serial inductance L, and the serial resistance Rs of the complex impedance with an auto-balance bridge measurement circuit [5]. 

Information if data are put into context with other data, we call the result information. The measurement of the biological activity of a compound gains in value if we also know the molecular structure of that compoimd. 

Since the radical lifetime provides the final piece of information needed to independently evaluate the three primary kinetic constants-remember, we are still neglecting chain transfer-the next order of business is a consideration of the measurement of r. 

The Raman spectrum can be used to give additional information regarding the symmetry properties of vibrations. This information derives from the measurement of the depolarization ratio p for each Raman band. The quantity p is a measure of the degree to which the polarization properties of the incident radiation may be changed after scattering... 

Much more information can be obtained by examining the mechanical properties of a viscoelastic material over an extensive temperature range. A convenient nondestmctive method is the measurement of torsional modulus. A number of instmments are available (13—18). More details on use and interpretation of these measurements may be found in references 8 and 19—25. An increase in modulus value means an increase in polymer hardness or stiffness. The various regions of elastic behavior are shown in Figure 1. Curve A of Figure 1 is that of a soft polymer, curve B of a hard polymer. To a close approximation both are transpositions of each other on the temperature scale. A copolymer curve would fall between those of the homopolymers, with the displacement depending on the amount of hard monomer in the copolymer (26—28). 

Extensional viscosity that results purely from shear deformation seems to be of less interest, but has been measured (108). The theology of several different polymer melts in terms of shear viscosity and uniaxial and biaxial extensional viscosity has been compared (231). Additional information on the measurement of extensional viscosity are also available (105,238—240). 

Every method, with the exception of imaging technologies, provides the measurement of an equivalent spherical diameter in one form or another. The spherical diameter information can be deduced indirectiy from the behavior of the particles passing through restricted volumes or channels under the influence of gravity or centrifugal force fields, and from interaction with many forms of radiation. 

Radiometry. Radiometry is the measurement of radiant electromagnetic energy (17,18,134), considered herein to be the direct detection and spectroscopic analysis of ambient thermal emission, as distinguished from techniques in which the sample is actively probed. At any temperature above absolute zero, some molecules are in thermally populated excited levels, and transitions from these to the ground state radiate energy at characteristic frequencies. Erom Wien s displacement law, T = 2898 //m-K, the emission maximum at 300 K is near 10 fim in the mid-ir. This radiation occurs at just the energies of molecular rovibrational transitions, so thermal emission carries much the same information as an ir absorption spectmm. Detection of the emissions of remote thermal sources is the ultimate passive and noninvasive technique, requiring not even an optical probe of the sampled volume. 

Hospital sterilizer loads vary in composition, thus the challenge presented to the test organism can vary considerably, depending on the type and contents of packages in which they are placed. The benefits of a standardized test-pack constmction and test protocol are obvious, and such recommendation is made by AAMI for steam and ethylene oxide sterilizers (11). More recentiy in European (CEN) and International (ISO) standards, biological indicators are considered as additional information supplemental to the measurement of physical parameters. Indeed, for sterilization using moist heat (steam), the biological indicator information is not considered to be relevant. 

Monitoring by Electromechanical Instrumentation. According to basic engineering principles, no process can be conducted safely and effectively unless instantaneous information is available about its conditions. AH sterilizers are equipped with gauges, sensors (qv), and timers for the measurement of the various critical process parameters. More and more sterilizers are equipped with computerized control to eliminate the possibiUty of human error. However, electromechanical instmmentation is subject to random breakdowns or drifts from caUbrated settings and requires regular preventive maintenance procedures. 

This index lists the text pages on which quantitative information can be found relating to over 4000 specific heterocyclic compounds. In general the technique used (eg. H NMR) to measure the information has been given and not the type of information provided (eg. chemical shift values). The latter details may be found on the text pages themselves. 

Note that all observations are being used to supply information on each of the main effects and each effect is determined with the precision of a fourfold rephcated difference. The advantage of a one-at-a-time experiment is the gain in precision if the variables are additive and the measure of nonadditivity if it occurs (Ref. 40). 

Reference electrodes are used in the measurement of potential [see the explanation to Eq. (2-1)]. A reference electrode is usually a metal/metal ion electrode. The electrolyte surrounding it is in electrolytically conducting contact via a diaphragm with the medium in which the object to be measured is situated. In most cases concentrated or saturated salt solutions are present in reference electrodes so that ions diffuse through the diaphragm into the medium. As a consequence, a diffusion potential arises at the diaphragm that is not taken into account in Eq. (2-1) and represents an error in the potential measurement. It is important that diffusion potentials be as small as possible or the same in the comparison of potential values. Table 3-1 provides information on reference electrodes. 

The primary constituents to be measured are the pH of precipitation, sulfates, nitrates, ammonia, chloride ions, metal ions, phosphates, and specific conductivity. The pH measurements help to establish reliable longterm trends in patterns of acidic precipitation. The sulfate and nitrate information is related to anthropogenic sources where possible. The measurements of chloride ions, metal ions, and phosphates are related to sea spray and wind-blown dust sources. Specific conductivity is related to the level of dissolved salts in precipitation. 

Despite these limitations, mobile monitoring systems have been used to obtain useful information, such as the verification and tracking of the St. Louis, Missouri, urban plume. The measurement of a well-defined urban plume spreading northeastward from St. Louis is shown in Fig. 15-2 (7). These data were collected by a combination of instrumented aircraft and mobile vans. Cross-sectional paths were flown by the aircraft at increasing distances downwind. Meteorological conditions of low wind speed in the same direction helped to maintain this urban plume in a well-defined... 

If all constituents are separately measured, or are calculated by stoichiometry, as in the case of oxygen, then the analytical total, which is the sum of all elements plus any calculated by stoichiometry, conveys useful information. If the analytical total is above 102%, a possible mistake in the measurement of the electron dose or an unexpected change in spectrometer parameters is likely. If the analytical total is significandy below 98%, an additional consdtuent is likely to have been missed. 

XRD offers unparalleled accuracy in the measurement of atomic spacings and is the technique of choice for determining strain states in thin films. XRD is noncontact and nondestructive, which makes it ideal for in situ studies. The intensities measured with XRD can provide quantitative, accurate information on the atomic arrangements at interfaces (e.g., in multilayers). Materials composed of any element can be successfully studied with XRD, but XRD is most sensitive to high-Z elements, since the diffracted intensity from these is much lar r than from low-Z elements. As a consequence, the sensitivity of XRD depends on the material of interest. With lab-based equipment, surface sensitivities down to a thickness of -50 A are achievable, but synchrotron radiation (because of its higher intensity)... 

This relationship permits the measurement of the ratio k /ky. The initial concentrations [B—X]o and [B—Y]o are known from the conditions of the experiment The reaction can be stopped at some point when some of both B—X and B—Y remain unreacted, or an excess of B—X and B—Y can be used so that neither is completely consumed when A—A has completely reacted. Determination of [B—X], and [B—Y], then provides the information needed to calculate k /ky. It is clear that the reactions being compared must be of the same order. If they were not, division of the two rate expressions would leave uncanceled concentration terms. 

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