The LCA Framework

As the collective LCA studies on plastics show, these three life cycles have in many cases not been respected. The LCA framework does not force the user to do so. In order to do that, additional tools may have to be used, especially Material Flow Analysis. 

The International Standard Organization (ISO 14040) [26] breaks the LCA framework into four main stages (1) Goal and scope definition of the study. This stage clarifies the purposes of carrying the study while the assumptions and system boundaries are described clearly. (2) Life Cycle Inventory (LCI) analysis. LCI involves data collection and calculation procedures to quantify relevant inputs and outputs of the entire system defined within the system boundaries. (3) Life cycle impact assessment involves qualifying the potential environmental impacts of the inventory analysis results. (4) The interpretation of the results from the previous phases of the study in relation to the objective of the study. This interpretation can be in form of conclusions and recommendations to decision-makers for process changes to deliver improvement in the environmentel performance. 

The EU has shown interest in LCA as a tool in product policies. An inte-gtated product policy (IPP) is being developed in which LCA plays an important role. The EU has shown interest in LCA in its support for research in the ELI framework programs, in directives where LCA is mentioned, and in LCA information by the European Environmental Agency, EEA. 

Advisory Group are considering different facets of LCA. In 1993, they developed the Code of Practice ,the first worldwide accepted technical framework for LCA. This was an important step towards the harmonisation of the method and has initiated and supported the standardisation process by ISO. Between 1997 and 2000, ISO produced the international series of standard defining the different stages of the LCA methodology (ISO 14040 1997, ISO 14041 1998, ISO 14042 2000 ° as well as ISO 14043 2000° ). As mentioned above, these standards were replaced by two improved editions of life cycle assessment standards in 2006 (ISO 14040 2006 and ISO 14044 2006°). 

Abstract Life cycle assessment (LCA) is a useful tool to assess impacts of cradle-to-grave chains of products/services. In the Riskcycle framework, the focus is on additives. Additives are usually minor constituents of products, but depending on their specific properties they can be important in the total scope of impacts of such products. In the LCA literature, additives are hardly visible. Most case studies of products containing additives do not mention them. The reasons for this are unclear, but are at least partly due to the fact that information on additives is not included in standard LCA databases. This is true for both life cycle inventory (LCI) and life cycle impact assessment (LCIA) databases. Therefore, it is difficult to conclude whether or not additives indeed are important contributors to environmental impacts over the life cycle. 

A broader and more detailed evaluation can be done by performing a Life Cycle Analysis (LCA). The central idea of a LCA is that the environmental effects during the entire life cycle of a process are quantified. These environmental effects are caused by the use of fossil fuels for heating and production of electricity, the use of non-renewable raw materials for the production of materials and chemicals, and the emissions of pollutants to air, water and soil. These environmental effects can be subdivided further in various levels of detail. The five major effects mentioned are derived from the more general effects considered in the framework of the LCA. Based on the environmental sustainability of each of the complete treatment scenarios considered as technically feasible, a ranking according environmental... 

The relatively new field of industrial ecology provides a useful organizing framework for DEE (Lowe, 1993). Design for Environment (DEE) is the terminology for the third component of the LCA life-cycle improvement assessment. The principle of sustainable development suggests that companies or individuals should try both to minimize the consumption of virgin natural resources and to minimize the generation of waste material that has no productive use. 

Finally, as the process unfolds - and the marginal costs in relation to utility and profit decrease, as more and more low hanging fruit is picked - it is likely that a need for more sophisticated tools will evolve, including, ISO 14001, lifecycle assessments (LCA), tools for product development, purchase manuals, and so on. To ensure, however, that all efforts are continuing to move in the same direction, all of these tools should be informed by the same framework as is informing the business program - backcasting from basic principles of success. 

An LCA is organized into the following phases goal and scope definition, inventory analysis, impact assessment, and interpretation as shown in Fig. 5. The figure identifies the reciprocal influences of the individual phases and therefore shows the iterative character of an LCA. The application and the framework of the LCA have been separated to show that an application or a decision is not... 

Within the framework of an evaluatimi, the results from the impact assessment and the inventory analysis are analyzed and cmiclusions and recommendations are established. A further aspect is the transparent presentation of the LCA results. The standard ISO 14043 comprises three interpretation elements ... 

The International Organization for Standardization (ISO) has developed two primary standards for LCA. ISO 14040 [19] provides the principles and framework for LCI, while ISO 14044 [20] discusses requirements and guidelines. One requirement of the ISO standards is that when LCA is used for comparative assertions -saying that Package A is environmentally preferable to Package B, for example—the LCA must be subjected to a peer review process, and the peer review comments must be provided with the study itself. 

In reality, this assessment hinges on four clearly defined phases the definition of the goals and scopes of the LCA lifecycle inventory, evaluation of the impacts of the lifecycle and finally interpretation of the lifecycle. The assessment is based on a scientific methodology, which employs software toolkits, within the framework laid down by the ISO 14040 and 14044 standards. 

Miiller-Wenk, R., 1994. The ecoscarcity method as a valuation instrument within the SETAC-framework. In Udo de Haes, Jensen, Klopffer, Lindfors (Eds.), Integrating Impact Assessment into LCA. SETAC-Europe, Brussels, pp. 115—120. 

A cross-cutting aspect is the procedural framework of LCA for the assessment of biobased studies. Numerous studies investigate the influence of methodological choices on the results of LCA, for example, as to the functional unit, allocation procedures, and differences in impact assessment, for example, Kim et al. [55], Landis ct al. [56], Gnansounou et al. [57], Davis et al. [58]. Generally, surveys of LCA studies conclude that different studies cannot be compared directly due to different framework conditions, even if all apply to the ISO standards, for example [17, 49]. Consequently, a need for further standardization is perceived as... 

Flalog and Manik [12] developed AISMF LCSA through the combination of the E-LCA, LCC, and S-LCA frameworks, incorporated with multistakeholders analysis. The authors used multicriteria decision analysis to obtain the key indicators for LCSA, which were then used as critical variables for agent-based and/or system dynamics (e.g., use of causal loop relationships) modeling to ascertain the final results of sustainability decisions. 

Most recently, another methodology development with an emphasis on causal relationships, PROSUITE, was introduced under the EC 7th framework program. On the foundation of the (ISO) E-LCA framework, PROSUITE sustainability assessment is based on evaluating 16 midpoint and five endpoint impacts as shown in Fig. 14.1 [13]. 

The ISO standard on Environmental Management fystems eoneems the Life Cycle Assessment of products and processes. ISO 14040 is the general framework for the specific standards ISO 14041, ° ISO 14042 and ISO 14043. These ISO standards are integrated, sinee 2006, by the general standard ISO 14044." This standard indicates the next phases to perform a LCA analysis ... 

Monte Carlo analysis (MCA) can be used in conjunction with LCA to estimate variability and uncertainty. MCA is a tool that simulates a probable range of outcomes from given probability distributions for input variables and can be applied within an LCA framework to capture LCI parameter variability and uncertainty. With the use of MCA, any independent variable with a range of estimates or possible values can be assigned a probability distribution. Output distributions are generated by repeatedly and randomly sampling values from the probability distributions. A simulated outcome distribution can show the most likely scenario, as well as extreme cases that occur infrequently. Monte Carlo analysis within an LCI framework allows the capture of parameter variability and uncertainty. LCIA tools have variability and uncertainty in their factors, as well as uncertainty associated with the model itself (i.e., uncertainty associated with assumptions or boundaries used to construct the model). However, most LCIA tools do not include... 

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