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The high C/H ratio for heavy fuels and their high levels of contaminants such as sulfur, water, and sediment, tend to reduce their NHV which can reach as low as 40,000 kJ/kg by comparison to the 42,500 kJ/kg for a conventional home-heating oil. This characteristic is not found in the specifications, but it is a main factor in price negotiations for fuels in terms of cost per ton. Therefore it is subject to frequent verification. [Pg.237]

The example just shown assumed one discount rate and one oil price. Since the oil price is notoriously unpredictable, and the discount rate is subjective, it is useful to calculate the NPV at a range of oil prices and discount rates. One presentation of this data would be in the form of a matrix. The appropriate discount rates would be 0% (undiscounted),.say 10% (the cost of capital), and say 20% (the cost of capital plus an allowance for risk). The range of oil prices is again a subjective judgement. [Pg.321]

Estimates of the amount of natural gas available are made within the context of definitions and are subject to revision as definitions change, as additional information becomes available, as resources are consumed, or as undedyiag assumptions are altered. These definitions iaclude proved reserves where the resource is expected to be recoverable and marketable usiag known technology and prices probable reserves where a resource has been identified but not completely characterized and possible or potential gas where estimates are based on the available geological iaformation, historical trends, and previous successes. There are variations ia these definitions throughout the world. [Pg.168]

Purchases of manganese ore are made on the basis of user requirements, individual specifications, and availabiUty. Most grades of manufactured manganese chemicals are subject to government and commercial specifications, many of which apply to specific uses. Prices of metallurgical manganese ore reached a high of 3.78/t in 1990 (Fig. 13). [Pg.523]

Uses ndReactions. Linalool can be estetified to linalyl acetate by reaction with acetic anhydride. Linalyl acetate [115-95-7] has a floral-fmity odor, reminiscent of bergamot and lavender. The price of the acetate in 1995 was 14.30/kg (45). Linalool is subject to dehydration and to isomerization to nerol and geraniol during the esterification. However, if the acetic acid formed during the esterification is removed in a distillation column, the isomerization can be minimized and good yields of the acetate obtained (130). [Pg.421]

Waxes obtained from natural sources such as vegetables or iasects are subject to weather conditions which may severely affect the stabiUty of supply and price and, to a lesser extent, the consistency of the products. Waxes from minerals and synthetic sources are less susceptible to weather conditions, and thus have a more stable supply and price. [Pg.314]

Economic Aspects. The principal market for deuterium has been as a moderator for nuclear fission reactors fueled by unenriched uranium. The decline in nuclear reactor constmetion has sharply reduced the demand for heavy water. The United States has stopped large-scale production of D2O, and Canada is the only suppHer of heavy water at this time. Heavy water is priced as a fine chemical, and its price is not subject to market forces. [Pg.8]

The subject of fermentation alcohol has always been of considerable interest to several tropical countries, but until the oil crisis of 1973, other than Brazil (197), only India appeared to appreciate the importance of fermentation alcohol as a strategic material in its economy. Ethanol prices in India have been maintained at an extremely low level by processing cane molasses, which has been a waste product of negligible value (197). [Pg.409]

Ejfect of Raw-Materials Prices Raw materials for the chemical-process industries are subject to relatively wide variations in price. These effects on profits will now be considered. [Pg.848]

It is impossible to specify a completely foolproof coupling, particularly by manufacturer and model number. Still, in the interest of reliability, the specification should cover the subject of couplings. This requires the use of plant feedback and a lot of research on the part of the specification writer to determine the latest developments in coupling design. Unfortunately, when a vendor furnishes a coupling, it often becomes just another outside purchased item that he may purchase with a minimum specification and strictly on low price. [Pg.451]

Compared with the natural material, raw SBR is more uniform in a variety of ways. Not only is it more uniform in quality so that compounds are more consistent in both processing and product properties but it is also more uniform in the sense that it usually contains fewer undesired contaminants. In addition, over a period of years it has been generally less subject to large price variations. These differences in uniformity have, however, tended to lessen with the advent of improved grades of natural rubber such as Standard Malaysian Rubber which have appeared in recent years. [Pg.293]

A manufacturer considering using a thermoplastic elastomer would probably first consider one of the thermoplastic polyolefin rubbers or TPOs, since these tend to have the lowest raw polymer price. These are mainly based on blends of polypropylene and an ethylene-propylene rubber (either EPM or EPDM) although some of the polypropylene may be replaeed by polyethylene. A wide range of blends are possible which may also contain some filler, oil and flame retardant in addition to the polymers. The blends are usually subject to dynamic vulcanisation as described in Section 11.9.1. [Pg.878]

While these and many other contemporary quality policies would not need to be publicized 20 or so years ago, policy statements are not something new to the automobile industry. The General Motors of the 1920s under the direction of Alfred P Sloan used corporate policy as a means of coordinating the efforts of several divisions. GM s quality policy was to build quality products sold at fair prices and in setting up an Executive Gommittee Sloan wrote on the subject of quality, A carefully designed policy should be... [Pg.92]

Price EPRI report prices depend upon the page count of each document. A subject index is available. [Pg.107]

Total annual production of new gold is now about 2300 tonnes of which (1993) 27% comes from South Africa, 15% from the USA and 11% each from Australia and the former Soviet Union. The bulk of the gold from Western countries passes through the London Bullion Market which was established in 1666. Prices, which are quoted in troy oz, are affected by speculative buying and can be subject to astonishing fluctuations. [Pg.1176]

Each of these products is different each uses a different technology, is subject to different market forces, different production characteristics, distribution practices, and pricing systems. Yet, the dominant trends in energy efficiency, and in the policies used to affect it, show rcniarkablc siniilarity across end uses. [Pg.75]

Reliance on forcing consumers to subsidize is hardly unique to German coal. U.S. public utility regulation long has required unequal pricing among consumers. Historically, emphasis was on rates that caused industrial and commercial users to subsidize residential users. This has encouraged industrial customers to secure rate reforms. These are equity measures that are subject to the criticisms stated above. [Pg.1104]

Each of these excise taxes raises the price of the fuel for uses subject to the tax and might be expected to reduce the demand for petroleum and coal. However, to some extent the excise tax receipts col-... [Pg.1118]

For example, sulfur emissions from utility power plants in the United States are subject to an emissions cap and an allowance-trading system established under the Clean Air Act. An effective cap on annual sulfur dioxide emissions took effect in 2000, so no more than 8.95 million tons of SO can be emitted annually. Utilities that want to build another coal plant must purchase sulfur emission allowances from others who do not need them. This system provides a market incentive for utilities to reduce their sulfur emissions as long as the cost of such reductions is less than the price of purchasing the allowances. [Pg.1167]

Prices and availability subject to change without notice. [Pg.486]

For annual loads of up to 25,000 therms per annum gas is sold subject to published tariffs. Above this, the price of gas is subject to contract of which there are two types ... [Pg.262]

A further factor to be considered is that of the national energy situation. Fortunately, in the short term there are available sufficient reserves of gas, oil and coal to meet the national need, so supplies should not be a problem. However, the prices of these fuels are subject to international as well as national policies. Currently, there is a relationship between heavy fuel oil and coal and between gas and gas oil (see Section 30.2). In the long term, as supplies of oil and gas are reduced it is likely that increases in the price of gas will outstrip those of oil. [Pg.467]

The rapid rise of the plastics industry since World War II may be attributed to a number of factors. Foremost has been the fact that whilst many materials of construction have been subjected to continual increases in their price, the development of the petrochemicals industry and economies of scale have, for most of the time, led to reductions in the prices of plastics materials. With the passage of time more and more products constructed from traditional materials have become cheaper to produce from plastics. Whilst economies of scale have probably almost reached their limits, and whilst the low profitability of many plastics-producing plants may cause companies to retard increases in plant and production, the trend of increased plastics usage seems bound to continue. [Pg.914]

It is important to note that the fitting according to eq. (1) requires zero intercept behavior i.e., F =. 00 for H (for which Oj = Or =. 00). While we recognize that the data for the unsubstituted (H) member of a set may be as subject to experimental error as any other member, such error is generally relatively small for a set of reliable data. Any constant error from this source will be distributed among all of the substituents in such a manner as to achieve best fit. Any loss in precision of fitting of the set which may result by such a procedure we believe is a small price to pay compared to the violence done by introduction in eq. (I) of a completely variable constant parameter. The latter procedure has been utilized by other authors both in treatments by the simple Hammett equation and by the dual substituent parameter equation. [Pg.512]


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See also in sourсe #XX -- [ Pg.191 ]




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