Solutions, chemistry volume

Marcus Y., (1998). The properties of solvents, Wiley series on solution chemistry, Volume 4,Baffms Lane, Chichester. 

This approach to solution chemistry was largely developed by Hildebrand in his regular solution theory. A regular solution is one whose entropy of mixing is ideal and whose enthalpy of mixing is nonideal. Consider a binary solvent of components 1 and 2. Let i and 2 be numbers of moles of 1 and 2, 4>, and 4>2 their volume fractions in the mixture, and Vi, V2 their molar volumes. This treatment follows Shinoda. ... 

As in previous volumes,1 2 the solution chemistry of gold cyanides as well as the solid-state chemistry of binary and polynary gold cyanides and carbides have been excluded from this review. 

As indicated in Section 4.1 (and as should be apparent from the discussion thus far in this chapter), titrimetric analysis methods heavily utilize solution chemistry, and therefore volumes of solutions are prepared, measured, transferred, and analyzed with some degree of frequency in this type of analysis. It should not be surprising that analytical laboratory workers need to be well versed in the selection and proper use of the glassware and devices used for precise volume measurement. 

Gravimetric analysis utilizes primarily weight measurements and may or may not involve chemical reactions. Titrimetric analysis utilizes both weight and volume measurements and always involves solution chemistry and stoichiometry. 

The close packing of the molecules of a substance in the liquid state results in a density much higher than in the gaseous state and approaching that in the solid state. The density, p, is the mass per unit volume, and can be expressed as the ratio of the molar mass M to the molar volume V of a liquid. Table 2.1 lists the values of the properties M and V of representative liquids that are important in the field of solution chemistry and solvent extraction. The densities and molar volumes depend on the temperature, and the latter are given for 25°C. (For a discussion of industrial solvents, see Chapter 12.)... 

Aqueous polysulfide electrolytes are regularly the matter of fundamental photo-electrochemical studies (see Sect. 5.2 in Volume 6) and of the development of high-energy efficiency and highly stable photoelectrochemical solar cells [100,101]. Aqueous polysulfide solution chemistry is also of importance to the pulp and paper industry [102], and provides an opportunity for a battery cathode based on the... 

Enrique Moles, 1883-1953. Distinguished Spanish chemist and pharmacist. Professor of Inorganic and Physical Chemistry in the Faculty of Chemical Sciences at Madrid. His papers on non-aqueous solutions, molecular volumes and additivity, inorganic complexes, and atomifc weight determinations were published in the leading journals of Spain, England, France, Italy, and the Netherlands. See... 

See for example Topics in Current Chemistry, Volume 221 - Contrast Agents I. Carnall, W. T. The absorption and fluorescence spectra of rare earth ions in solution, Handbook on the Physics and Chemistry of the Rare Earths , Vol. 4 Eds. Gschneider... 

The industrial and biochemical importance of coordination compounds of chromium is described in Volume 6, and aspects of theoretical, mechanistic and solution chemistry are discussed in Volume 1 of this series. 

This tiny quantity of material, if prepared as an aqueous solution of volume 1 L, would have a concentration of 10 14 mol/L. This simple calculation demonstrates a number of the important features of radiochemistry, that is, (a) the manipulation of samples involving infinitesimal quantities of material, (b) the power of nuclear analytical techniques (since 1 j.Ci is a significant, easily detectable quantity of radioactivity), and (c) in an extension of the calculation, since the decay of a single atom might occur by a-particle emission (with 100% detection efficiency), the ability to do chemistry one atom at a time. 

This volume of the Handbook illustrates the rich variety of topics covered by rare earth science. Three chapters are devoted to the description of solid state compounds skutteru-dites (Chapter 211), rare earth-antimony systems (Chapter 212), and rare earth-manganese perovskites (Chapter 214). Two other reviews deal with solid state properties one contribution includes information on existing thermodynamic data of lanthanide trihalides (Chapter 213) while the other one describes optical properties of rare earth compounds under pressure (Chapter 217). Finally, two chapters focus on solution chemistry. The state of the art in unraveling solution structure of lanthanide-containing coordination compounds by paramagnetic nuclear magnetic resonance is outlined in Chapter 215. The potential of time-resolved, laser-induced emission spectroscopy for the analysis of lanthanide and actinide solutions is presented and critically discussed in Chapter 216. 

Recall that stoichiometry involves calculating the amounts of reactants and products in chemical reactions. If you know the atoms or ions in a formula or a reaction, you can use stoichiometry to determine the amounts of these atoms or ions that react. Solving stoichiometry problems in solution chemistry involves the same strategies you learned in Unit 2. Calculations involving solutions sometimes require a few additional steps, however. For example, if a precipitate forms, the net ionic equation may be easier to use than the chemical equation. Also, some problems may require you to calculate the amount of a reactant, given the volume and concentration of the solution. 

Estimation of the partial molar enthalpy and partial molar volume is important in solution chemistry, because these values control the population of... 

The areas of inorganic and organic positron chemistry deal mainly with material characterization and industrial applications using PAS. Both chemical and electronic industries have found PAS to be a powerful method. In addition to the traditional solution chemistry of the positron and Ps [11], PAS has been developed to determine the free volume Bom-Oppenheimer approximation, such as molecular solids [14] and polymers [15]. The unique localization property of Ps in free volumes and holes has opened new hope in polymer scientific research that determination of atomic-level free volumes at the nanosecond scale of motion is possible. During the last ten years, most positron annihilation research has involved a certain amount of polymer chemistry, polymers and coatings, which will be discussed in Chapters 12 and 13. For inorganic systems, oxides are mostly studied using the positron and Ps. Silicon oxides and zeolites are the most important systems in positron and Ps chemistry. The developments in this area have on the cavity structure and chemical states of inner surfaces. Chapters 8 and 14 will discuss this subject. 

Fig. 15.—Gel electrofocusing of anti-fucose and anti-BSA antibodies gel B = anti-BSA antibodies, gel F = anti-fucose antibodies gel E = embedded gel of anti-fucose antibodies P = precipitin band, and T = solution of fucose-BSA. (Reprinted with permission from Journal of Protein Chemistry, Volume 13, J. H. Pazur, B. Liu, and T. F. Witham, pp. 59-66, copyright 1994 Journal of Protein Chemistry.)...

In large-scale syntheses, the minimum amount of solvent is added at each step and the amount is adjusted at each cycle as the swollen volume of the peptidyl resin increases. These amounts are previously determined on a smaller scale during the process development phase of the project. There is also the possibility that during the process development phase, it becomes apparent that the most economical method of synthesizing large amounts of the peptide is by a combination of solution and solid-phase methodst or completely by solution chemistry.t ... 

Interpretation of reaction rates using stirred flow-through reactors is more straightforward than for batch reactors because solution chemistry remains constant during dissolution. In a continuously stirred tank reactor (CSTR) or a mixed flow reactor (Rimstidt and Dove, 1986) a mineral sample is placed in a reactor of volume Rq and fluid is pumped through at flow rate Q (L T ). Fluid is stirred by a propeller or by agitation. The rate of reaction, r (molm s i), is calculated from the inlet (q) and outlet concentrations (cq) of a component released during dissolution of the mineral ... 

Rates of dissolution or weathering of rocks and minerals are proportional to their surface areas exposed to a given volume of solution, or rate a AIV). Exposed areas can vary widely, depending on the occurrence ol the rock. In this problem you are asked to compare and contrast the rates of rock dissolution under attack by acid rain and in the pores of a rock. We will assume that the rock, temperature, pressure, and solution chemistry are the same in both cases. 

Skill 8.5 Applying the law of conservation of mass to solve problems involving moles, mass, and volume and problems involving solution chemistry... 

Operating with Activated Carbon, Counter-current Handbook, and Adsorption from Solution, Darco Corporation, New York. Helbig, W. A., p. 814 in Colloid Chemistry, Volume 6 (J. Alexander, Editor), Reinhold Publishing Corp., New York, 1946. 

Many environmental reactions and almost all biochemical reactions occur in solution, so an understanding of reactions in solution is extremely important in chemistry and related sciences. We ll discuss solution chemistry at many places in the text, but here we focus on solution stoichiometry. Only one aspect of the stoichiometry of dissolved substances is different from what we ve seen so far. We know the amounts of pure substances by converting their masses directly into moles. For dissolved substances, we must know the concentration—the number of moles present in a certain volume of solution—to find the volume that contains a given number of moles. Of the various ways to express concentration, the most important is molarity, so we discuss it here (and wait until Chapter 13 to discuss the other ways). Then, we see how to prepare a solution of a specific molarity and how to use solutions in stoichiometric calculations. 

Very thorough and comprehensively referenced surveys of the coordination chemistry of zinc are available. In each of these multivolume compendia, there is an article devoted to zinc complexes, but there are also numerous mentions of zinc complexes in the introductory volumes and in the volumes on applications and uses. Thermodynamic data AH, AS, AGf also some AX° values for e.g. ZnX2 + 2L) are available for about 100 zinc complexes. In this present encyclopedia, we are only able to mention a very small selection of the more important and interesting complexes. Preparations, structures, properties, and uses are dealt with in this section, the solution chemistry of zinc complexes in later sections (Sections 9.2 and 9.3). 

While this method is commonly used (De Nobih and Fornasier (1994), Kiichler et al. (1994), Mazid (1988), BeUn et al. (1993), Shaw et al (1994), Burba et al (1998), Buffle et al (1978), Crum et al (1996), Aiken (1984), Amy et al (1987), Reinhard (1984), Amy et al (1992), Hepplewhite (1995)), most authors have used different filtration protocols for their fractionation experiments. Cells can be operated in series (cascade) or in parallel, volumes and concentrations are varied, and some authors refill the cell with pure water to keep the cell concentration constant. All these factors influence the results obtained, and solution chemistry, pH, and ionic strength may also influence results. Generally reported size results are above the expected sizes of FA and FIA. UF MWCOs used are usually 0.5-1, 3, 5, 10, 30 kDa. 

Stirred cell systems were selected for the experimental work for a number of reasons (1) volumes are small which is required for the use of IHSS reference material, (ii) membrane samples are small which allows the use of a new membrane for each experiment, (iii) the solution chemistry can be precisely controlled, (iv) experiments are relatively short and thus the investigation of a great number of parameters is possible, and (v) the concentration in the cell represents the concentration in a crossflow module (recovery about 70%). A comparison of mass transfer values was demonstrated in the case of NF in Chapter 7. Drawings of the filtration equipment are shown in Appendix 2, A hydrodynamic analysis is also shown in Appendix 2. 

A typical ice cream consists of about 30% ice, 50% air, 5% fat and 15% matrix (sugar solution) by volume. It therefore contains all three states of matter solid ice and fat, liquid sugar solution and gas. The solid and gas are small particles - ice crystals, fat droplets and air bubbles -in a continuous phase, the matrix. To understand the creation of the microstructure during the manufacturing process we must first introduce some concepts from the physical chemistry of colloids, freezing and rheology (the study of the deformation and flow of materials). 

The previous discussion has centered around the topic of expressing the mass of constituents either as "themselves" or as some common constituent for the sake of convenience. More common to chemistry in general is the use of molarity, the moles of solute per volume of solutjpn... 

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