Electronics, solid-state

Several factors detennine how efficient impurity atoms will be in altering the electronic properties of a semiconductor. For example, the size of the band gap, the shape of the energy bands near the gap and the ability of the valence electrons to screen the impurity atom are all important. The process of adding controlled impurity atoms to semiconductors is called doping. The ability to produce well defined doping levels in semiconductors is one reason for the revolutionary developments in the construction of solid-state electronic devices. 

Barraud A, Rosilio C and Ruaudel-Teixier A 1977 Solid-state electron-induced polymerization of (a-tricosenoic acid multilayers J. Coiioid interfaoe Soi. 62 509-23... 

Streetman B G 1990 Solid State Electronic Devices (Englewood Cliffs, NJ Prentice Hall)... 

B. G. Streetman, Solid-State Electronic Depices, Prentice Had, Englewood Cliffs, N.J., 1980. 

S. BorreUo and Z. CeUk-Buder, Solid State Electron. 36, 407 (1993). 

According to Gatos, the needs of solid-state electronics, not least in connection with various compound semiconductors, were a prime catalyst for the evolution of the techniques needed for a detailed study of surface structure, an evolution which gathered pace in the late 1950s and early 1960s. This analysis is confirmed by the fact that Gatos, who had become a semiconductor specialist in the materials science and engineering department at was invited in 1962 to edit a new journal to be... 

Other fields of surface study were of course developing the study of catalysts for the chemical industry and the study of friction and lubrication of solid surfaces were two such fields. But in sheer terms of economic weight, solid-state electronics seems to have led the field. 

The sensitive dependence of the electrical and magnetic properties of spinel-type compounds on composition, temperature, and detailed cation arrangement has proved a powerful incentive for the extensive study of these compounds in connection with the solid-state electronics industry. Perhaps the best-known examples are the ferrites, including the extraordinary compound magnetite Fc304 (p. 1080) which has an inverse spinel structure (Fe )t[Fe Fe ]o04. 

Silicon shows a rich variety of chemical properties and it lies at the heart of much modern technology/ Indeed, it ranges from such bulk commodities as concrete, clays and ceramics, through more chemically modified systems such as soluble silicates, glasses and glazes to the recent industries based on silicone polymers and solid-state electronics devices. The refined technology of ultrapure silicon itself is perhaps the most elegant example of the close relation between chemistry and solid-state physics and has led to numerous developments such as the transistor, printed circuits and microelectronics (p. 332). 

Such sensors utilizing solid-state electronics have significant advantages. The actual sensing area is very small. Hence, a single miniaturized solid-state chip could contain multiple gates and be used to sense several ions simultaneously. Other advantages include the in-situ impedance transformation and the ability for temperature and noise compensation. While the concept of the ISFET is very... 

The radical anions of dialkyl sulfoxides (or sulfones) may be obtained by direct capture of electron during y-irradiation. It was shown that electron capture by several electron acceptors in the solid state gave anion adducts 27. It was concluded276 that these species are not properly described as radical anions but are genuine radicals which, formed in a solid state cavity, are unable to leave the site of the anions and exhibit a weak charge-transfer interaction which does not modify their conformation or reactivity appreciably, but only their ESR spectra. For hexadeuteriodimethyl sulfoxide in the solid state, electron capture gave this kind of adduct 278,28 (2H isotopic coupling 2.97 G is less than 3.58 G normally found for -CD3). 

Solid-state electronic devices such as diodes, transistors, and integrated circuits contain p-n junctions in which a p-type semiconductor is in contact with an n-type semiconductor (Fig. 3.47). The structure of a p-n junction allows an electric current to flow in only one direction. When the electrode attached to the p-type semiconductor has a negative charge, the holes in the p-type semiconductor are attracted to it, the electrons in the n-type semiconductor are attracted to the other (positive) electrode, and current does not flow. When the polarity is reversed, with the negative electrode attached to the n-type semiconductor, electrons flow from the n-type semiconductor through the p-type semiconductor toward the positive electrode. 

The start of the solid-state electronic industry is generally recognized as 1947 when Bardeen, Brattain, and Shockley of Bell Telephone Laboratories demonstrated the transistor function with alloyed germanium. The first silicon transistor was introduced in 1954 by Texas Instruments and, in 1956, Bell Laboratories produced the first diffused junction obtained by doping. The first-solid state transistor diodes and resistors had a single electrical function and were (and still are) known as discrete devices. 

Figure 4. Simplified schematic of an optical/infrared focal plane array. The detector is a thin wafer of light sensitive material that is connected to a thin layer of solid state electronics - the connection is made either by direct deposition (CCD) or bump bonding (IR detector). The solid state electronics amplify and read out the charge produced by the incident light.

In order to provide resolution in two-dimensions, the light sensitive material is subdivided into an array of pixels, as shown in Fig. 5. These pixels are defined by electric fields that are created within the light sensitive material. The electric fields can be generated one of two ways (1) permanently defined by implanting (doping) a very small amount of another material, or (2) programmably defined by electric fields produced by wires in the solid state electronics. 

Solid state electronics that amplify and read out the charge... 

All of the optical and infrared focal plane arrays are solid state electronic devices, and to fully understand their physics and operation, one should have a solid foundation in the solid state electronics. An excellent reference is ... 

An important challenge in the design of novel conjugated polymers is the synthesis of materials with tailor-made solid-state electronic properties. This section outlines the synthesis of the most significant classes of poly(para-phenylenevinylene)s (PPVs), poly(para-phenylene)s (PPPs), and related structures. Furthermore, this review demonstrates that the chromophoric and electronic properties of conjugated rr-systems are sensitive to their molecular and supra-molecular architecture. 

A main problem concerning the solid state electronic properties of PPPs is its tendency to form aggregates. One synthetic strategy for overcoming this problem is the transition from linear, one-dimensional systems to branched or dendritic, two-dimensional ones. 

One application of modem solid-state electronic devices is semiconductor materials that convert electrical energy into light. These light-emitting diodes (LEDs) are used for visual displays and solid-state lasers. Many indicator lights are LEDs, and diode lasers read compact discs in a CD player. The field of diode lasers is expanding particularly rapidly, driven by such applications as fiber optic telephone transmission. 

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