Solar panels

Solar evaporation Solarization Solar panels Solar ponds Solar power systems Solar radiation Solar salt... 

Since 1970 the subject of amoiphous semiconductors, in particular silicon, has progressed from obscurity to product commercialisation such as flat-panel hquid crystal displays, linear sensor arrays for facsimile machines, inexpensive solar panels, electrophotography, etc. Many other appHcations are at the developmental stage such as nuclear particle detectors, medical imaging, spatial light modulators for optical computing, and switches in neural networks (1,2). 

Hydraulic and Heat-Transfer Fluids. HydrauHc fluids (qv) for high altitude supersonic aircraft and thermal exchange appHcations including solar panels employ fluids such as tetrakis(2-ethyIhexoxy)silane. These products have been marketed under the trade name Coolanol by Monsanto (see Heat-exchangetechnology). 

The avadabihty of PMDI also led to the development of polyurethane-modified isocyanurate (PUIR) foams by 1967. The PUIR foams have superior thermal stabiUty and combustibiUty characteristics, which extend the use temperature of insulation foams well above 150°C. The PUIR foams are used in pipe, vessel, and solar panel insulation glass-fiber-reinforced PUIR roofing panels having superior dimensional stabiUty have also been developed. More recently, inexpensive polyester polyols based on residues obtained in the production of dimethyl terephthalate (DMT) have been used in the formulation of rigid polyurethane and PUIR foams. 

Action of Vacuum on Spacecraft Materials. For service beyond the atmosphere, the vacuum environment allows materials to evaporate or decompose under the action of various forces encountered (1,18,19). These forces include the photons from the sun, charged particles from solar wind, and dust. The action of space environment on materials and spacecraft can be simulated by a source—sink relationship in a vacuum environment. Thus, for example, the lifetime of a solar panel in space operation may be tested (see Photovoltaic cells). 

A vacuum system can be constmcted that includes a solar panel, ie, a leak-tight, instmmented vessel having a hole through which a gas vacuum pump operates. An approximate steady-state base pressure is estabUshed without test parts. It is assumed that the vessel with the test parts can be pumped down to the base pressure. The chamber is said to have an altitude potential corresponding to the height from the surface of the earth where the gas concentration is estimated to have the same approximate value as the base pressure of the clean, dry, and empty vacuum vessel. 

This simulation can be achieved in terms of a source—sink relationship. Rather than use the gas concentration around the test object as a target parameter, the test object can be surrounded by a sink of ca 2-7T soHd angle. The solar panel is then maintained at its maximum operating temperature and irradiated by appropriate fluxes, such as those of photons. Molecules leaving the solar panel strike the sink and are not likely to come back to the panel. If some molecules return to the panel, proper instmmentation can determine this return as well as their departure rates from the panel as a function of location. The system may be considered in terms of sets of probabiUties associated with rates of change on surfaces and in bulk materials. 

Charger Technology. Alkaline storage batteries are commonly charged from rectified d-c equipment, solar panels, or other d-c sources and... 

Black and colored plates can also be obtained from chromic acid baths. The plates are mostly oxides (177). Black chromium plating bath compositions are proprietary, but most do not contain sulfate. The deposit has been considered for use in solar panels because of its high absorptivity and low emissivity (175). 

Use of solar panels or photovoltaics (PVs) is another popular way to generate solar electricity. The space program is perhaps the most recognized user of PVs and is responsible for most of the advancements in PVs. Many people are familiar with PVs through small applications such as calculators and perhaps solar water heaters, but early forays in PV experimentation were little more than noted side observations in non-PV experiments. 

Solar panels on a house roof in Soldier s Grove, Wisconsin. (Corbis Corporation)... 

The power supply is usually a transformer/rectifier that converts a.c. power to d.c. Typically the d.c. output will be in the range 15-100 V and 5-100 A although 200 V/200 A units are not unknown. Thus fairly substantial driving voltages and currents are available. Where mains power is not available, diesel or gas engines, solar panels or thermoelectric generators have all been used to provide suitable d.c. 

An experimental Honda fueling station in the Los Angeles area produces about 1/2-kg of hydrogen per day, about 3.5-kg. It uses 700 square feet of solar panels to produce 6 kilowatts of power to electrolyze water. 

The Solectria Company started on a small-scale in 1989 selling solar panels, electric motor controllers, and converters to college electric vehicle racing teams. This led to electric conversions on compact cars and pickup trucks but even their most basic conversion was 33,000 and most sales were to utilities and government agencies. 

The key is a reduction of costs. Solar panels are expensive since photovoltaic technology is still in its infancy. Although the price of PV cells has fallen significantly, PV electricity is still not without a subsidy. As more PV systems are built and installed, the market should result in solar electricity becoming more and more competitive. 

Photovoltaics may provide a revolution in the supply of electric power. Still, to ensure that new buildings contribute to sustainable development a less cautious bureaucracy is needed, which is less resistant to new ideas and not associated with vested interests, especially in the non-renewable electricity industry. Logistical problems have also damped solar energy growth. This includes the difficulty of finding reputable contractors to install solar panels. 

One problem has been the cost of the solar panels. Los Angeles began its solar program after state legislators mandated that utilities spend about 3% of their revenue on efficiency, conservation and renewable energy. For solar, the power department had 75 million to spend over a five year period. The power department would pay 5 for each watt of solar installed on a residence or business. Homeowners typically purchase a 1-or 2-kW system meaning that the municipal utility paid between 5,000 and 10,000 of the cost. The systems that are eligible for rebates must be... 

The shape of an NEV is free to take many forms, since it is not constrained by the conventional internal combustion engine s requirements for space. The electric motor is very small and the battery compartment is kept low in the vehicle for a low center of gravity, so it is often under the rear storage bay. Amorphous cell panels allow simple curved solar panels to be a part of the vehicle. 

The SunRay two-seat model has a 5.5 hp, 48V motor and uses 6 lead/ acid golf cart batteries. It has a 180W solar panel and a 55 mile range with a maximum speed of 22 mph. 

The Kudo Cruise Car comes in 2,4,6,8,11 and 14 seat models. The six-seat model has a 7 hp motor with a range of about 50 miles and a maximum speed of 25 mph. It uses 8 standard lead / add batteries and has a 880W solar panel. 

The Quaranta is a concept hybrid gas/electric vehicle with solar assist. The electric portion is made by Italdesign Giugiaro. The roof is a solar panel that charges the batteries and provides energy for the climate control system. The all wheel drive, mid-engined car accelerates from zero to 62 mph (100 kph) in 4.05 seconds and tops out at 155 mph. This is a three-seat high performance sports car. 

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