Social and economic factors

Parallel to the advance of pharmaceutical innovation, other determinants of health outcome may also change over time, such as income level and personal health care expenditures on other types of care. Because of the limitation of data sources, we are unable to construct the disease-specific data for health care expenditure and income. Rather, we use the average annual household income and time trend to control the influence of social and economic factors on health outcome. For simplicity, we assume that the health effect of pharmaceutical innovation occurs without lag when we extend our regression to include other explanatory variables. 

In this chapter, a plan for prescribing is presented. The physical form of the prescription, common prescribing errors, and legal requirements that govern various features of the prescribing process are then discussed. Finally, some of the social and economic factors involved in prescribing and drug use are described. 

If the absence of women from the applicant pool is the observable, what is the mechanism I would postulate that the problem lies with departmental and scientific culture, which in turn exists within this huge bubble of our societal culture. Wolf-laureate Chien-Shiung Wu, a physicist who arguably should have gotten a Nobel Prize but didn t, addressed that point before she died I sincerely doubt that any open-minded person really believes in the faulty notion that women have no intellectual capacity for science and technology.21 Nor do I believe that social and economic factors are the actual obstacles that prevent women s participation in scientific and technical fields. The main stumbling block in the way of any progress is and always has been unimpeachable tradition. 22 This observation came from a... 

It is helpful to make clear some principles and assumptions that continue throughout the rest of this chapter. We first examine the different types of standards that are used (typological issues) and their role in environmental regulation. We then outline a framework for deriving a new standard that attempts to incorporate social and economic factors into our decision making. 

With these principles in mind, we propose a framework for deriving environmental standards that addresses not only the necessary technical considerations but also the social and economic ones. In particular, establishing an early relationship with stakeholders should make it easier to discuss openly any issues about data requirements or uncertainties identified later in the development of a standard. Within this framework, we argue for a formal approach to identifying a preferred option that optimizes the balance between potentially conflicting scientific, social, and economic factors, especially if the proposals could be contentious or expensive. MCDA is a tool that seems to address this balancing task, in which technical, economic, and social factors all contribute to a final decision. 

This chapter shows that other information must also be considered before an environmental standard can be implemented successfully. The implementation of standards cannot be a totally science-based issue technical, social, and economic factors must also be considered. Critically, as discussed in Chapter 2, the legal or policy context must be clear from the start, and a standard based on scientific knowledge should then be applied to a specific policy context. However, in most situations there are few data and an incomplete understanding, which leads to uncertainty in the standard itself and, potentially, to its application. This uncertainty must be accounted for if a standard is to be applied consistently and fairly (Royal Commission on Environmental Pollution [RCEP] 1998). 

Justification of practices and interventions involves many factors, including social and political aspects, as well as radiological considerations. Some practical guidance on justification for practices and interventions is provided by the BSS, and some examples are provided here an intervention is justified if it is expected to achieve more good than harm, having regard to health, social and economic factors. Protective actions are nearly always justified if, in the absence of intervention, doses are expected to approach certain specified values related to deterministic effects. 

The abundance of tin in the Earth s surface is about 2 ppm, significantly less than that of zinc (94 ppm), copper (63 ppm), or lead (12 ppm). The most important ore is cassiterite, Sn02, which occurs as placer (alluvial) deposits. The breakdown of the current production of tin by area is shown in Figure 1.1.1. About 75% of the world s production comes from China and South East Asia, and about 18% from South America, but the annual figures are sensitive to political, social, and economic factors. ... 

Spence and Haynie ( 0) discussed two surveys by Michelson and Tourin, and Booz al. in which an attempt was made to correlate concentration of atmospheric particulate matter with the frequency of repainting. Although these surveys showed a correlation, there are many unanswered questions. The effects of other pollutants, the type of paint used, and the social and economic factors affecting painting frequency were not taken into account. 

How can different environmental problems be compared to each other The severity of environmental impacts will almost certainly vary according to physical, social and economic factors. For example, the impact of effluents in a developing country without municipal water treatment facilities will be more severe, compared to a situation where these effluents are treated in several stages before release to a watercourse. 

This paper presents the results of research and development on floating nuclear power plant (FNPP) for electricity and heat production for remote locations and small island or coastal communities. Evaluations of construction period, social and economic factors as well as safety and operational issues of the non-self-propelled barge-mounted NPP is given. 

Sustainable growth must therefore encompass environmental, social, and economic factors and maintain a balance between them. This implies consideration of a wide range of factors in determining solutions to environmental problems. Although the public eye is often focused only on waste management and recycling, rigorous and correct technical solutions require that the overall, much broader, picture be studied. 

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