Scientific method, researching

The scientific method, as mentioned, involves observation and experimentation (research) to discover or establish facts. These are followed by deduction or hypothesis, establishing theories or principles. This sequence, however, may be reversed. The noted twentieth-century philosopher Karl Popper, who also dealt with science, expressed the view that the scientist s work starts not with collection of data (observation) but with selection of a suitable problem (theory). In fact, both of these paths can be involved. vSignificant and sometimes accidental observations can be made without any preconceived idea of a problem or theory and vice versa. The scientist, however, must have a well-prepared, open mind to be able to recognize the significance of such observations and must be able to follow them through. Science always demands rigorous standards of procedure, reproducibility, and open discussion that set reason over irrational belief. 

Ackoff and Sasieni [1] defined operations research (OR) as the application of scientific method by interdisciplinary teams to problems involving the control of organized (man-machine) systems so as to provide solutions which best serve the purposes of the organization as a whole . 

Noting that the written record should be intelligibly prepared so that others may benefit from its study (26), Crowley urged readers to examine a sample from an advanced student published in the same issue of The Equinox. He boldly asserted that the more scientific the record is, the better (26). He also cautioned that The A.A. will not take official notice of any experiments which are not thus properly recorded (25). The vision of scientific method that Crowley expressed in The Equinox would certainly have conformed to his own education in scientific research under Ramsay and Collie at London and at Cambridge. For Crowley, scientific illuminism would be characterized by meticulous and objective record keeping of laboratory experiments, a concern about possible sources of error, the broader research community s access to other scientists research results, and the sanctioning of practices by an authorizing body. 

Rational control of health and environnental risks from technical development requires scientific knowledge which must be acquired through the orderly process of the scientific method of inquiry. Contrary to widely held opinions the latter is no less subjective than other rational human endeavors which require decisions under uncertainty. Indeed, to be applied, the method requires a value system which in ordinary research is supplied by the various scientific disciplines. Because of differences among the disciplinary value systems problems often arise in the interdisciplinary settings of efforts to control risks from technical development. Metrics, the concepts, theory, and practice of measurement is suggested here as a way to deal with such problems. 

Because of the nature of the scientific method. Metrics is an indispensable tool of scientific research. It can provide rigorous indices of the internal consistency and the predictive power of "accepted knowledge" about study systems. Thus, it can aid with theory testing. It can also provide rigorous indices of the strength of correlations between the attributes of the study system and the external factors that might influence it. Thus, it can assist with statistical hypothesis formulation and testing. 

It is a commonly held view that the scientific method of inquiry is, or at least ought to be, objective in the sense that it should transcend the personal value system of the researcher. The terms bad science, better science or best science are often used to connote the perceived degree of objectivity of a particular scientific activity

. Further, trans science is a term which was coined to sort and label putative encroachments upon "objective science by issues that can be posed as scientific questions but cannot be answered by the available means of scientific experimentation(15). The term was introduced because it was thought that the division of technologically important issues into scientific and trans-scientific would significantly reduce the problems of converting data into useful iformation. 

Ackoff, R.L. Gupta, S.K. Minas, J.S. "Scientific Method Optimizing Applied Research Decisions" John Wiley and Sons, Inc. New York and London, 1962 p. 295. 

Application of scientific methods to archaeometry and the conservation of cultural heritage is carefully carried out to ensure that the methods chosen are in line with the purposes of the research. According to Lahanier [5], methods currently available are classified into three categories ... 

Scientific method The research procedures for conducting a scientific investigation, which involves laboratory or held observations, the development of multiple hypotheses to explain the observations, and the testing of the hypotheses with computers, laboratory measurements and experiments, and/or held research. The inveshgahon may result in none, one, several, or many of the hypotheses being verihed as plausible explanahons. If a hypothesis is repeatedly shown to be a reliable explanahon and can actually make reasonably accurate predichons, it becomes a theory. 

The particulars of research look different, but the basic scientific method is the same. 

No single laboratory test can determine the complete burning character of a particular textile.7 There are two types of tests, scientific or research test methods and the standard test methods. The research test methods help in understanding the burning behavior and are used to develop new products or fire-retardant finishes. 

American Chemical Society publications Analytical Chemistry, Environmental Science and Technology, and the Journal of the American Chemical Society. These descriptions are usually brief and often just summarize the techniques and procedures of the method. Research reported in scientific journals is often focused on a detailed investigation of a narrow subject area, and new analytical techniques and procedures developed for the research are rarely tested in a broader context. Analytical quality assurance and control are often minimal or not described. Techniques and procedures described in scientific research journals are the beginnings of analytical methods, however, they usually require considerable development, modifications, and testing before they become widely accepted analytical methods. 

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