Established facts

The scientific method, as mentioned, involves observation and experimentation (research) to discover or establish facts. These are followed by deduction or hypothesis, establishing theories or principles. This sequence, however, may be reversed. The noted twentieth-century philosopher Karl Popper, who also dealt with science, expressed the view that the scientist s work starts not with collection of data (observation) but with selection of a suitable problem (theory). In fact, both of these paths can be involved. vSignificant and sometimes accidental observations can be made without any preconceived idea of a problem or theory and vice versa. The scientist, however, must have a well-prepared, open mind to be able to recognize the significance of such observations and must be able to follow them through. Science always demands rigorous standards of procedure, reproducibility, and open discussion that set reason over irrational belief. 

The thickness of the crystal plates or lamellae can be measured by x-ray diffraction studies and other methods. It is a well-established fact that thinner lamellae are formed at lower temperatures of crystallization. 

This result uses the already established fact that M = when the molecular weight is determined by light scattering for a polydisperse system. 

The above series also illustrates an experimentally established fact[3] Except for the change of mean val-... 

The interpretation of these results is, however, problematic since no data on the absolute enthalpy and entropy of the respective triple helix and coiled state are available. Though it may be taken as an established fact that the entropy of conformation of a (Pro-Pro-Gly) coil is lower than in the case of a (Pro-Ala-Gly)n coil, we are not sure whether the entropy of the triple helix depends on the imino acid content. 

I have to write about Anthony and Elizabeth looking out from my mind, of course, establishing facts from colophons and margi-... 

The editors wrote their comment on chemical imbalances as if it were an established fact, and this is also how it is presented by drug companies. Actually it is not. Instead, even its proponents have to admit that it is a controversial hypothesis that has not yet been proven.1 Not only is the chemical-imbalance hypothesis unproven, but I will argue that it is about as close as a theory gets in science to being disproven by the evidence. 

In Figure 3, o/(X—X-z) is plotted against 1/X to obtain the constants 2Cj and 2C2 in the Mooney-Rivlin equation. The intercepts at 1/X = 0 and the slopes of the lines give the values of 2Cj and 2C2, respectively, listed in Table I. If these plots actually represent data accurately as X approaches unity, then 2(Cj + C2) would equal the shear modulus G which in turn equals E/3 where E is the Young s (tensile) modulus. An inspection of the data in Table I shows that 2(Cj + C2)/(E/3) is somewhat greater than one. This observation is in accord with the established fact that lines like those in Figure 3 overestimate the stress at small deformations, e.g., see ref. 15. 

In the absence of official information, which was made known only in the evening, we were uncertain whether simultaneously with the march into Austria which to us was already an established fact, there would not also take place the "short thrust" into Czechoslovakia with all the international complications which would be kindled by it. 

Disilenes (R2Si=SiR2). Now that (p-p) n bonding in silicon chemistry has become an established fact, compounds having multiple bonding beween silicon atoms have been prepared. Such compounds having a double bond between two silicon atoms are called disilene. 

My theory is based essentially on two suppositions (suppositions 1 and 3) which are extremely plausible extrapolations from well-established facts, and one (supposition 2) which is at present still somewhat speculative. In its simplest form the new theory can be formulated as follows ... 

The demonstration that neither of the ions-at-any-price views, the main rivals of the pseudo-cationic theory, is compatible with the facts does not, of course, prove the ester theory. As I pointed out in my introduction, it is not possible to prove any scientific theory. What has been demonstrated, however, is that the ester theory will account for most of the established facts it has the advantage of being based in conventional organic chemistry, and it provides interesting guide-lines for future research and innovation. 

It is a well-established fact that when advanced yogis and adepts die their vacated physical bodies show no sign of decomposition or decay... 

Theory It is an established fact that cis- and /raws-substituted double bonds have slightly different absorption bands in the region of 13 pm. This specific feature forms the basis of the present determination. 

An illustration of the variable responses to nicotine concerns aphids. In an experiment, 2 per cent of an insect population died or became moribund when exposed to 0.0001 M nicotine solution, 48 per cent were affected when the concentration was 0.0025 M, and 98.5 per cent when the concentration was 0.012 M. The concentrations of nicotine required to affect all the insects alike varied more than 120-fold.21 The pharmacology of nicotine as studied in mammals is notably complex and unpredictable, partly because many sites of action are involved. Its effect on different human individuals is also diverse, but it has not been adequately investigated, particularly in view of the fairly well established fact that amblyopia and Buerger s disease occur in relatively rare cases directly because of its use.22... 

Hence it is first necessary to consider that factual situations vary. Then one must consider that a lawyer can state how a particular court in a particular set of circumstances set forth the law and from this can give an opinion estimating what the law is today. A top-notch lawyer can make a reliable estimate of what the law is going to be when a future dispute is adjudicated in a special tribunal. Also, a great part of a lawsuit is establishing facts, and this is particularly pertinent to trade secret situations. 

Nowadays, it is a well-established fact that the effector R is not isosteric but allosteric to the substrate A. Originally, this conclusion was based on the finding that the enzyme can be desensitized, i.e., one can add substances that affect the regulatory site but not the activity of the enzyme with respect to the substrate. 

It is a well established fact that the preferred site of protonation of aniline in solution is the nitrogen atom, due to the higher stabilization upon solvatation of the N-protonated species with respect to the ring protonated ion (/). In the gas phase however, the situation is less clear, and the preferred site of protonation has been the subject of many experimental and theoretical studies. Based on proton transfer equilibria at 600 K and upon correlation of the proton affinities... 

It should be noted that particles in the chemisorbed state may differ in nature from the corresponding molecules in the gaseous phase, representing not these molecules themselves, but just parts of them, which lead an independent existence on the surface. In other words, the very act of adsorption may in some cases be accompanied by dissociation of the molecule this may be considered an experimentally established fact. Such adsorption accompanied by dissociation, requires an activation energy, as was shown by Lennard-Jones (16) on the example of the Hj molecule. The mechanism of such dissociation, which is one of the simplest examples of a heterogeneous reaction has, however, until recently not been investigated. 

As you read through your paper and format your citations, it s important to be sure that any conclusions you have made that go against accepted belief or previously established facts, or that are highly obscure and not well known, are supported by a note or citation. Again, if you are writing a paper about World War II, a good example of this might be ... 

As soon as fraud is suspected, a series of steps needs to be followed which have been thought out and written down as an SOP before any clinical research commenced. Where possible, additional evidence should be obtained, usually by the use of a competent QA auditor. In the meantime, only the minimum key individuals should be made aware of the problem until sufficient evidence has been obtained to establish the truth. The appropriate authorities such as the national drug industry organisation and the regulatory authorities should be informed if fraud has taken place. Sometimes, other sponsors will have reported additional evidence that fraud is taking place at a particular site. The site will need to be closed if study subjects are still being recruited and a full explanation provided to the authorities. Any clinical data collected will need to be reviewed and a decision made as to whether any of the data can be included in an analysis. To a pharmaceutical physician, fraud is never an easy situation. It usually involves a professional colleague and there is always the worry that the established facts have been misinterpreted. However, a fraudulent individual cannot be tolerated in modern clinical research. 

The enormous enrichments of Se on ambient particles relative to particles from coal-fired plants are surely due to the same problems as noted for As, but especially the well established fact that a major fraction of Se Is In the vapor phase at stack temperatures (47, 48). The very large Se enrichments for ambient particles Indicate that much of the vapor-phase Se condenses on particles after release. In some areas there may be additional Important sources of As and Se, e.g., non-ferrous smelters. 

It should be noted that the early stages of this proposed mechanism for ECF, as stated, are not dissimilar to those used to describe other systems (see Sect. 2), and begs the question why perfluorination does not occur in these earlier reactions, but does so readily in the Simons process, particularly in those where the electrochemical conditions are not so very different, (e.g., R4NBF4 + KF in CH3CN) [173]. Moreover, it is difficult to reconcile the established fact that oxidation potentials of compounds dramatically increase as a function of... 

It should be clearly recognized that the subject of computing is not synonymous with automation, as seems frequently to be suggested. The usefulness of computing, separated from direct process control, is an established fact. The relationship of computers to automation in the process industries is still so embryonic that it does not seem advisable to dwell on it in a review of this type. 

These established facts made that retinoid chemistry of today, more than ever, a challenge for chemists. 

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