Research economics

Hydrogen as fuel. 2. Hydrogen-Research-Economic aspects. 3. Hydrogen industry. 

Some Areas of Application. I next summarize some areas of application where expert systems exist or are being developed, usually by several laboratories. Some of these areas are covered in detail in other presentations as part of this symposium. I want to emphasize that this is a partial list primarily of scientific and engineering applications. A similar list could easily be generated for operations research, economics, law, and so forth. Some of the areas are outside strict definitions of the fields of chemistry and chemical engineering, but I have included them to illustrate the breadth of potential applications in related disciplines. 

Surprisingly, despite the widespread use of Markov chains in many areas of science and technology such as Polymers, Biology, Physics, Astronomy, Astrophysics, Chemistry, Operations Research, Economics, Communications, Computer Networks etc., their applications in Chemical Engineering has been relatively meager. 

Melliand Textilberichte (45) covers the entire textile industry it carries fundamental and applied research, economic figures, and literature abstracts. This journal also offers its abstracts in a separate service printed on one side of a sheet to permit individual indexing of each abstract. Reyon Zellwolle (48) is similar but devoted to man-made fibers. Covering the same field is a new journal, Faserforschung und Textiltechnik (48). 

Adams RM, Horst Jr RL. Fumre directions in air quahty research economic issues. Eviron Int 2003 29 289-302. 

Natural gas analysis has considerable economic importance. In fact, commercial contracts increasingly specify not just volume but the calorific or heating value as well. Today the calorific value of a natural gas calculated from its composition obtained by chromatography is recognized as valid. There is therefore a large research effort devoted to increasing the precision of this analysis. 

The purpose of our researches is a study of variants for creation of an economic means for 3D tomographic inspection. For this purpose it is necessary to carry out the analysis of existing methods of 3D reconstruction, directed on solving problems of NDT a wide class of industrial products. 

A catalyst is a material that accelerates a reaction rate towards thennodynamic equilibrium conversion without itself being consumed in the reaction. Reactions occur on catalysts at particular sites, called active sites , which may have different electronic and geometric structures than neighbouring sites. Catalytic reactions are at the heart of many chemical industries, and account for a large fraction of worldwide chemical production. Research into fiindamental aspects of catalytic reactions has a strong economic motivating factor a better understanding of the catalytic process... 

The research for this thesis was carried out in connection with NIOK, the Netherlands Institute for Catalysis Research and supported by the Department of Economic Affairs. 

The synthetic fiber industry as we know it began m 1928 when E I Du Pont de Nemours Company lured Professor Wallace H Carothers from Harvard University to direct their research department In a few years Carothers and his associates had pro duced nylon the first synthetic fiber and neoprene a rubber substitute Synthetic fibers and elastomers are both products of important contemporary industries with an economic influence far beyond anything imaginable m the middle 1920s... 

R. Will, "Eurfural," Chemical Economics Handbook, Stanford Research Institute, Menlo Park, Calif., Mar. 1994. 

N. W. Childs, "The Changing Role of the United States in the World Rice Market," in U.S. Department of Agriculture, Rice Situation and Outlook Yearbook, Economic Research Service, RS-55, Washington, D.C., 1989. 

M. S. Ash., Animal Feeds Compendium, Agricultural Fconomic Report No. 656, U.S. Dept, of Agriculture, Economic Research Service, Washington, D.C., 1992. 

Coal is used ia industry both as a fuel and ia much lower volume as a source of chemicals. In this respect it is like petroleum and natural gas whose consumption also is heavily dominated by fuel use. Coal was once the principal feedstock for chemical production, but ia the 1950s it became more economical to obtain most industrial chemicals from petroleum and gas. Nevertheless, certain chemicals continue to be obtained from coal by traditional routes, and an interest in coal-based chemicals has been maintained in academic and industrial research laboratories. Much of the recent activity in coal conversion has been focused on production of synthetic fuels, but significant progress also has been made on use of coal as a chemical feedstock (see Coal CONVERSION processes). 

Alternative feedstocks for petrochemicals have been the subject of much research and study over the past several decades, but have not yet become economically attractive. Chemical producers are expected to continue to use fossil fuels for energy and feedstock needs for the next 75 years. The most promising sources which have received the most attention include coal, tar sands, oil shale, and biomass. Near-term advances ia coal-gasification technology offer the greatest potential to replace oil- and gas-based feedstocks ia selected appHcations (10) (see Feedstocks, coal chemicals). 

Economic Aspects. In the United States fluoroboric acid is manufactured by Atotech USA, Inc., General Chemical, C.P. Chemical Co., Fidehty Chemical Products, and Chemtech Harstan. Research quantities of reagent grade are made by Advance Research Chemical Co., Johnson-Mathey, and Ozark-Mahoning Co. The price for 48% fluoroboric acid in tmcHoad quantities in 1993 was 2.13—2.25/kg (20). 

Economic Aspects. In the United States the sodium, potassium, ammonium, and magnesium fluoroborates are sold by Advance Research... 

Natural Gas Upgrading via Fischer-Tropsch. In the United States, as in other countries, scarcities from World War II revived interest in the synthesis of fuel substances. A study of the economics of Fischer synthesis led to the conclusion that the large-scale production of gasoline from natural gas offered hope for commercial utiHty. In the Hydrocol process (Hydrocarbon Research, Inc.) natural gas was treated with high purity oxygen to produce the synthesis gas which was converted in fluidized beds of kon catalysts (42). 

Direct conversion of natural gas to Hquids has been actively researched. Process economics are highly variable and it is unclear whether direct natural gas conversion technologies are competitive with the estabUshed indirect processes. Some emerging technologies in this area are presented herein. 

A low temperature of approach for the network reduces utihties but raises heat-transfer area requirements. Research has shown that for most of the pubhshed problems, utility costs are normally more important than annualized capital costs. For this reason, AI is chosen eady in the network design as part of the first tier of the solution. The temperature of approach, AI, for the network is not necessarily the same as the minimum temperature of approach, AT that should be used for individual exchangers. This difference is significant for industrial problems in which multiple shells may be necessary to exchange the heat requited for a given match (5). The economic choice for AT depends on whether the process environment is heater- or refrigeration-dependent and on the shape of the composite curves, ie, whether approximately parallel or severely pinched. In cmde-oil units, the range of AI is usually 10—20°C. By definition, AT A AT. The best relative value of these temperature differences depends on the particular problem under study. 

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