Processing environment

HACCP analysis was developed to provide assurance of the safety of food products. It is specific to each processing environment, although there are some generic critical control points that may be applied industrywide (Anon., 1992). 

The theories of Deming in the 1950s that developed into the TQM system and the methods employed by the Pillsbury Company in the 1960s were the two major foundations for the development of HACCP (MFSC/ NFPA, 1992). 

HACCP involves identifying the safety risks inherent in the product and devising preventive measures that can be monitored in order to control the process. By emphasising anticipation and prevention, the need for inspection of the final product is minimised. Critical control points (CCPs) are points in the process where loss of control has reasonable probability of creating an unacceptable health risk to consumers of the product. When a critical limit at a CCP is violated, the process must be stopped and the problem corrected (MFSC/NFPA, 1992). There should be less than six CCPs in a process if possible, otherwise the HACCP may become unwork- 

Control points (CPs) are the points in the process where loss of control is not likely to result in unacceptable health or safety risk, but correction is required. The difference between CCPs and CPs requires careful review by quality assurance (QA) and food safety experts experienced in working in HACCP programs (MFSC/NFPA, 1992). 

HACCP is not designed to be a complete quality assurance system it is designed to be the part of the QA system that is focused on food safety (microbiological, chemical and physical). Record-keeping and display are vital to the process. Regular audits are also essential to ensure that the process is operating as required. HACCP works best when TQM is the basis of the company s quality philosophy (MFSC/NFPA, 1992). An overview of how TQM may be applied within the food industry is provided by Fulks (1991). 

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A low temperature of approach for the network reduces utihties but raises heat-transfer area requirements. Research has shown that for most of the pubhshed problems, utility costs are normally more important than annualized capital costs. For this reason, AI is chosen eady in the network design as part of the first tier of the solution. The temperature of approach, AI, for the network is not necessarily the same as the minimum temperature of approach, AT that should be used for individual exchangers. This difference is significant for industrial problems in which multiple shells may be necessary to exchange the heat requited for a given match (5). The economic choice for AT depends on whether the process environment is heater- or refrigeration-dependent and on the shape of the composite curves, ie, whether approximately parallel or severely pinched. In cmde-oil units, the range of AI is usually 10—20°C. By definition, AT A AT. The best relative value of these temperature differences depends on the particular problem under study. 

Determine Critical Control Points. A critical control point (CCP) is any point in the process where loss of control may result in an unacceptable health risk. A CCP is estabhshed for each identified hazard. The emergence of foodbome pathogens has taught food processors the importance of potential product contamination from the processing environment. 

Temperature. Temperature sensor selection and installation should be based on the process-related requirements of a particular situation, ie, temperature level and range, process environment, accuracy, and repeatabiHty. Accuracy and repeatabiHty are affected by the inherent characteristics of the device and its location and installation. For example, if the average temperature of a flowing fluid is to be measured, mounting the device nearly flush with... 

There are several types of deposition chamber configurations (Fig. 2). The batch-type system is the most commonly used, but the requirement that the system be returned or let-up to ambient pressure on each cycle can pose problems in obtaining a reproducible processing environment. The load-lock system and the in-line system allows the deposition chamber to be kept under vacuum at all times and the substrates introduced and removed through... 

In the area of consumer products, amperometric glucose sensors hold high potential. Industrially, process monitors for the manufacture of consumer chemicals are under development. However, replacement of defective reference electrodes, which in a laboratory environment may be trivial, may be prohibitively difficult m vivo or in an industrial process environment. 

If all data from a process he within the 3o limits, then we conclude that nothing unusual has happened during the recorded time period. The process environment is relatively unchanged, and the product quahty lies within specification. On the other hand, if repeated violations of the 3o limits occur, then the process environment has changed and the process is out of control. 

Nascent atomic hydrogen released at metal surfaces by chemical reactions between the process environment and the metal (corrosion or cathodic protection reactions)... 

A few basics on manual and automatic control will be covered to familiarize the user with some of the considerations necessary to acr -mate a compressor to the process environment. 

The classification structure for PIFs used in this chapter is based on the model of human error as arising from a mismatch between demands and resources which was described in Chapter 1, Section 1.6 (Figure 1.6). In this model demands were seen as requirements for human performance which arise from the characteristics of the process environment (e.g., the need to monitor a panel or to be able to fix a seal in a flange) and the nature of the human capabilities to satisfy these demands (e.g., skills of perception, thinking, and physical action). These demands are met by the individual and group resources of personnel and the extent to which the design of the task allows these resources to be effectively deployed. Where demands exceeded resources, errors could be expected to occur. 

The chemical process environment which refers to the complexity and novelty of the process events, their perceived danger, and the imposed time constraints on the workers... 

All of these factors determine the stress experienced by the workers and the extent to which operational errors will be recovered before disastrous consequences have ensued. In this context, hazard identification techniques, such as hazard and operability studies (HAZOP), failure modes and effects and criticality analysis (FMECA), fault trees, and others are useful in making the process environment more forgiving. 

Eor most gas process environments-refineries, catalyst development sites, research and development and plant laboratories-a knowledge of the exact composition of the... 

Lundstrom, U. S. (1994) Significance of organic acids for weathering and the podzolization process. Environ. Int. 20,21-30. 

Thomas PM, Foster GD (2005) Tracking acidic pharmaceuticals, caffeine, and triclosan through TFIE wastewater treatment process. Environ Toxicol Chem 24(l) 25-30... 

Although implants are rather easily fabricated, problems have occurred in instances when care is not taken in maintaining an ultradry processing environment. It is extremely important to thoroughly dry the bulk polymer and the bioactive agent, usually at ambient temperature under vacuum, prior to processing. Dry nitrogen... 

A central problem In relating catalytic processes on well-defined surfaces In the laboratory with those encountered under technological conditions Is the large pressure difference a factor of 10 . It Is therefore highly questionable to extrapolate surface coverages or surface reaction rates measured between 10 and 10" Torr In order to predict behavior expected In process environments (one Torr to several atmospheres)(1). 

Sharma AK, GB Josephson, DM Cameron, SC Goheen (2000) Destruction of pentachlorophenol using glow discharge plasma process. Environ Sci Technol 34 2267-2272. 

Burgos WD, JT Novak, DF Berry (1996) Reversible sorption and irreversible binding of naphthalene and a-naphthol to soil elucidation of processes. Environ Sci Technol 30 1205-1211. 

Onwimah IN (2002) Quantitative modelling of crude oil toxicity using the approach of cybernetics and structmed mechanisms of microbial processes. Environ Monit Assess 76(2) 157-166... 

These installations of on-line process analytical equipment operated over extended periods of time with the high degree of dependability required in the process environment. Considerable cost savings in process development time were achieved through automation of analysis. 

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