Refining research

M. A. Clarke, Proc. 1970 Technical Session on Cane Sugar Refining Research, Boston, MA (Oct., 1970) 179-188. 

Donahue, M. D. Praushitz, J. M. "Statistical Thermodynamics of Solutions in Natural Gas and Petroleum Refining" Research Report 26, Gas Processors Association, Tulsa, OK... 

Typically extrapolations of many kinds are necessary to complete a risk assessment. The number and type of extrapolations will depend, as we have said, on the differences between condition A and condition B, and on how well these differences are understood. Once we have characterized these differences as well as we can, it becomes necessary to identify, if at all possible, a firm scientific basis for conducting each of the required extrapolations. Some, as just mentioned, might be susceptible to relatively simple statistical analysis, but in most cases we will find that statistical methods are inadequate. Often, we may find that all we can do is to apply an assumption of some sort, and then hope that most rational souls find the assumption likely to be close to the truth. Scientists like to be able to claim that the extrapolation can be described by some type of model. A model is usually a mathematical or verbal description of a natural process, which is developed through research, tested for accuracy with new and more refined research, adjusted as necessary to ensure agreement with the new research results, and then used to predict the behavior of future instances of the natural process. Models are refined as new knowledge is acquired. 

Phase 2 trials include more participants (about 100-300) who have the disease or condition that the product potentially could treat. In Phase 2 trials, researchers seek to gather further safety data and preliminary evidence of the drug s beneficial effects (efficacy), and they develop and refine research methods for future trials with this drug. If the Phase 2 trials indicate that the drug may be effective—and the risks are considered acceptable, given the observed efficacy and the severity of the disease—the drug moves to Phase 3. 

Once the site categories are refined, research is conducted to determine the location of public and private drinking water supplies in proximity to known dump sites. Where private wells are found within 1,000 feet of a known dump, or public water wells within one-half mile, geologic conditions are carefully evaluated to determine if contamination could occur. When this determination is positive, the sites are referred to the appropriate local or state agency for water well testing. 

The apparatus essential to the modern chemical philosopher is much less bulky and expensive than that used by the ancients. An air pump, an electrical machine, a voltaic battery (all of which may be upon a small scale), a blow-pipe apparatus, a bellows and forge, a mercurial and water gas apparatus, cups and basins of platinum and glass, and the common reagents of chemistry, are what are required. All the implements absolutely necessary may be carried in a small trunk and some of the best and most refined researches of modern chemists have been made by means of an apparatus which might with ease be contained in a small travelling carriage, and the expense of which is only a few pounds. 

All the implements absolutely necessary may be carried in a small trunk and some of the best and most refined researches of modern chemists have been made by means of an apparatus which might with ease be contained in a small travelling carriage... 

Current address Petroleum Refining Research and Technology Center, Japan Energy Corporation, 3—17—35 Niizo-Minami, Toda-shi, Saitama 335, Japan... 

Petroleum Refining Research Institute, Luo Yang Petrochemical Eng. Corp., 471023, Luo Yang, Henan P.R.CHINA... 

Clarke, M.A. Brannan M.A. Carpenter F.G. A study of sugar inversion losses by high pressure liquid chromatography. Proc. 1976 Technical Session on Cane Sugar Refining Research, New Orleans, LA, 1977 pp. 46-56. 

Chromatographic techniques, particularly gas phase chromatography, are used throughout all areas of the petroleum industry research centers, quality control laboratories and refining units. The applications covered are very diverse and include gas composition, search and analysis of contaminants, monitoring production units, feed and product analysis. We will show but a few examples in this section to give the reader an idea of the potential, and limits, of chromatographic techniques. 

Then, in the early and mid-1 990s, CAS developed SciFinder and SciFinder Sc ho lar to address the needs of professional chemists and other scientists. SciFinder was developed to allow more intelligence in data access, such as smart structure searching, research topic exploration, advanced author searching, and powerful refine and analysi.s capabilities including categorize and panorama". 

The AMBER (Assisted Model Building and Energy Refin emeni) is based on a force field developed for protein and nucleic acid computations by members of the Peter Kollman research group at the... 

Semiempirical molecular orbital calculations have gone through many stages of refinement and elaboration since Pople s 1965 papers on CNDO. Programs like PM3, which is widely used in contemporary research, are the cumulative achievement of numerous authors including Michael Dewar (1977), Walter Thiel (1998), James Stewart (1990), and their coworkers. 

A vast amount of research has been undertaken on adsorption phenomena and the nature of solid surfaces over the fifteen years since the first edition was published, but for the most part this work has resulted in the refinement of existing theoretical principles and experimental procedures rather than in the formulation of entirely new concepts. In spite of the acknowledged weakness of its theoretical foundations, the Brunauer-Emmett-Teller (BET) method still remains the most widely used procedure for the determination of surface area similarly, methods based on the Kelvin equation are still generally applied for the computation of mesopore size distribution from gas adsorption data. However, the more recent studies, especially those carried out on well defined surfaces, have led to a clearer understanding of the scope and limitations of these methods furthermore, the growing awareness of the importance of molecular sieve carbons and zeolites has generated considerable interest in the properties of microporous solids and the mechanism of micropore filling. 

DNQ—novolac resist chemistry has proved to have remarkable dexibiUty and extendibiUty. First introduced for printing appHcations, DNQ—novolac resists have been available since the eady 1960s in formulations intended for electronics appHcations. At present, most semiconductor manufacturing processes employ this resist chemistry. Careful contemporary research and engineering support the continuing refinement of this family of materials. 

The hquid remaining after the solvent has been recovered is a heavy residual fuel called solvent-refined coal, containing less than 0.8 wt % sulfur and 0.1 wt % ash. It melts at ca 177°C and has a heating value of ca 37 MJ/kg (16,000 Btu/lb), regardless of the quaUty of the coal feedstock. The activity of the solvent is apparently more important than the action of gaseous hydrogen ia this type of uncatalyzed hydrogenation. Research has been directed to the use of petroleum-derived aromatic oils as start-up solvents (118). 

Cmde oil can be easily separated into its principal products, ie, gasoline, distillate fuels, and residual fuels, by simple distillation. However, neither the amounts nor quaUty of these natural products matches demand. The refining industry has devoted considerable research and engineering effort as well as financial resources to convert naturally occurring molecules into acceptable fuels. Industry s main challenge has been to devise new ways to meet the tremendous demand for gasoline without, at the same time, overproducing other petroleum products. 

H. Batrick and co-workers. Final Report—The Production and Refining of Crude Shale Oil into Military Fuels, AppHed Systems Corp. for Office of Naval Research, Washington, D.C., Aug. 1975. 

The highest purity (>99.99%) oxygen is obtained through further refinement. At 99.99% the impurities total only 100 ppm. This grade of oxygen is used in the manufacture of electronic components, fiber optics (qv), etc, or for gas chromatograph calibration or research appHcations. 

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