Refining of the Oil

The acid number determinations were made immediately after refinement of the oil and were continued at every biological test period for 325 days. The oil was applied at 100% concentration to the point of runoff on immature bean and corn plants in the greenhouse. The temperature at which the plants were grown for the duration of each test was 80 F., and the relative humidity was approximately 85%. Phytotoxicity was determined on the second, seventh, and fourteenth day after the plants were sprayed. Figure 1 demonstrates the relationship obtained in these tests between acid number and per cent of plant injury. 

It is well known that ICEVs have rather low on-the-road efficiencies (currently 20-25%, at best), but their overall performance is in fact even lower when account is taken of the energy used in the extraction, transport and refining of the oil and then in the delivery of the petrol. Together, these extra losses typically amount to around 13% i.e., a net efficiency of 87%). On multiplying the two values, the overall well-to-wheels efficiency is reduced to 17—22%. 

Liquefied petroleum gas (LPG) is a subcategory of a versatile class of petroleum products known as natural gas liquids (NGLs) that are produced along with and extracted from natural gas (see Gas, natural). LPG is also produced from the refining of cmde oil (see Petroleum). Although LPG is... 

Low temperature filtration (qv) is a common final refining step to remove paraffin wax in order to lower the pour point of the oil (14). As an alternative to traditional filtration aided by a propane or methyl ethyl ketone solvent, catalytic hydrodewaxing cracks the wax molecules which are then removed as lower boiling products. Finished lubricating oils are then made by blending these refined stocks to the desired viscosity, followed by introducing additives needed to provide the required performance. Table 3 Usts properties of typical commercial petroleum oils. Methods for measuring these properties are available from the ASTM (10). 

A process has been developed (139) whereby up to 80% of the oil can be removed from whole, raw peanuts without the use of solvent. In this process, the blanched peanuts are brought to a proper moisture content, pressed mechanically, and then reshaped or reconstituted by dipping in hot water subsequently they can be roasted and salted, or used in confections or other formulations. Defatted peanuts may also be ground into meal and added to cookies, cakes, and many other products, where they impart a distinctly nutty flavor and cmnchy texture. On the other hand, the resulting high grade oil is refined and employed in cooking and industrial products. This process can also be used for pecans, walnuts, almonds, Brazil nuts, cashews, and other nuts (140-142). 

Hydrogels are used ia the refining of edible oils to adsorb phosphohpids, trace metals, and soaps (103). The adsorption capacity depends on the ease of hydration of the adsorbates, so best performance demands careful control of moisture content ia the system (104). Sihca hydrogel ia combination with alumiaa has beea fouad to be useful for purifyiag used cooking oils ia order to extead their life and enhance the quahty of the fried food (105). 

P. W. Sleggs, "Steam Refining of Castor Oil," Meeting of the International Castor Oil Association, New York, presented Dec. 6, 1990. 

The chemical propjerties of the contaminants have to be considered when selecting separation techniques. Some of the liquids are absolutely immiscible in water, and if the process stream involves water and the contamination is liquid/liquid, then the separation technique can greatly reduce the volume of contaminated water. For example, if acetone is the contaminant of concern, a simple vap>or stripping technique can be effective in making a separation. In the case of refined oil, which has a solubility limit of approximately 50 ppm, one of the oil/water separation techniques could be effective. Some general guidelines to consider are ... 

In general, mercaptans are more malodorous than sulfides and hydrogen sulfide. The presence of significant amounts of sulfur can induce catalyst poisoning during the refining of crude oil. 

Sulfur for commercial purposes is derived mainly from native elemental sulfur mined by the Frasch process. Large quantities of sulfur are also recovered from the roasting of metal sulfides and the refining of crude oil, i.e., from the sulfur by-products of purified sour natural gas and petroleum (the designation sour is generally associated with high-sulfur petroleum products). Reserves of elemental sulfur in evaporite and volcanic deposits and of sulfur associated with natural gas,... 

High throughput screening is one of the hot topics in heterogeneous catalysis. Advanced experimental techniques have been developed to screen and develop solid catalysts for gas-phase systems. However, for catalytic three-phase systems, rapid screening has got much less attention [1-6]. Three-phase catalysis is applied in numerous industrial processes, from synthesis of fine chemicals to refining of crade oil. 

Extending the emulsion to a water-in-oil-in-water mixture allowed further refinement of the IVC concept. Compartmentalization of E. coli containing semm paraoxonase variants allowed the accumulation of fluorescent product to a point where it could be detected by FACS [57]. This approach was also used with in vitro transcription and translation to evolve /3-galactosidase activity from the Ebg gene [58]. 

Transportation fuel represents the largest demand share of the oil market, so changes in the transport fleet (type of vehicle, relative proportion of each type, etc.) will certainly affect the refining profile. All these alternatives sum up to an enormous fuel menu, which, by all means, looks unviable. Such complexity and diversity has to be focused to narrow the choices and the number of co-existing fuels, while complying with market requirements at the same time. 

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