Rarefied atmospheres

Dr. von Knieriem lived in a less rarefied atmosphere. Morris was not the only judge, after all. Von Knieriem did his best to show that Farben had coveted the old Nobel firm, simply as a business proposition, seven years before Hitler came to power. Nor was it Farben s responsibility that the firm s name had been shortened to "Dynamit A.G." Before Carl Bosch opened negotiations along with Schmitz (who was already in line for the presidency), the firm had dropped Alfred Nobel s name when he set up a prize for contributions to world peace. 

It was discovered early in the sixteenth century that a combustible gas is formed when sulfuric acid acts upon steel filings or iron nails. Robert Boyle of Oxford observed that hydrogen would not burn in the rarefied atmosphere produced by his air pump. Henry Cavendish in 1781 showed that water is produced when hydrogen combines with oxygen. He did not,... 

A peculiarity of the class of high-altitude flash charges is that (undoubtedly in connection with spectral emission) they are as effective in the highly rarefied atmosphere as at low altitude." " " As shown in Formulas 47—50, the spectral effects are produced by calcium either as metal or as compound, and additional advantages are gained by the presence of a sodium compound. Information on these developments is found in several Picatinny Arsenal reports." -" ... 

In Chapter 19, it was indicated that the dispersion of alkali metals at high altitudes is a new tool in space exploration. Instead of merely evaporating the metals by pyrochemical heat sources, one might think of producing them by chemical reaction and dispersing the resulting metal vapors in the rarefied atmosphere. 

Because of the extremely rarefied atmosphere and the effects of ionizing radiation, elemental oxygen in the upper atmosphere exists to a large extent in forms other than diatomic O2. In addition to O2, the upper atmosphere contains oxygen atoms, O excited oxygen molecules that have been energized by the absorption of photons of UV radiation, O2 and ozone, O3. 

As the sufficient operational experience for some passive systems and components is absent, the extensive experimental investigation and tests have been carried out or planned to prove the functioning of these systems under plant conditions. In particular, the experiments are already performed for residual heat removal system (SPOT), quick boron supply system, the system to keep the rarefied atmosphere in the containment wall s gap, emergency core cooling system, and some others. 

Sir William Crookes will probably be longest remembered for his study of rarefied gases and for his discoveries in radioactivity and molecular physics. After Sir William Ramsay discovered helium in 1895, it was Crookes who established its identity with the helium that Sir Norman Lockyer had observed spectroscopically in the sun s atmosphere. Crookes also invented the radiometer and the spinthariscope. As early as 1886-88 he recognized the existence of atomic species of identical... 

Hail is supposed to be formed in warm weather, when the sun is above the horizon, and under different circumstances to those calculated to produce snow. It is supposed to be produced in the ascending current of greatly rarefied air, by the cold consequent OH Such rarefaction, the force of the upward current being such as to carry with it the minute solid globule, till, by uniting with others, it attains a density that causes it to descend. Generally, this phenomenon of the production of hail is associated with a peculiar electrical state of the atmosphere, to which it must be principally attributed. 

The earth s atmosphere extends some 600 to 1500 kilometers into space. Two factors are involved in this great extension of the atmosphere. First, above about 100 kilometers, the atmospheric temperature increases rapidly with altitude, causing an outward expansion of the atmosphere far beyond that which would occur were die temperature within the bounds observed at the earth s surface. Second above Ihis dislance. the atmosphere is sufficiently rarefied so that the different atmospheric constituents attain diffusive equilibrium distributions in the gravitational field the lighter... 

When Bernie Shizgal arrived at UBC in 1970, his research interests were in applications of kinetic theory to nonequilibrium effects in reactive systems. He subsequently applied kinetic theory methods to the study of electron relaxation in atomic and molecular moderators,46 hot atom chemistry, nucleation,47 rarefied gas dynamics,48 gaseous electronics, and other physical systems. An important area of research has been the kinetic theory description of the high altitude portion of planetary atmospheres, and the escape of atmospheric species.49 An outgrowth of these kinetic theory applications was the development of a spectral method for the solution of differential and integral equations referred to as the quadrature discretization method (QDM), which has been used with considerable success in statistical, quantum, and fluid dynamics.50... 

Interactions of electromagnetic radiation with particles Transport and deposition Atmospheric visibility radiative transfer in combustors analytical chemistry of particles military applications Process equipment fouling thin-film deposition microcontamination filtration kinetic theory of rarefied gases hydrodynamics atmospheric dry and wet deposition. 

Above the intermediate layer a hot, rarefied, and heavily irradiated disk atmosphere exists (T > 100 K). This is a molecule-deficient region (apart from H2) where only simple light hydrocarbons, their ions, and other radicals, such as CCH and CN, are able to survive ( zone of radicals ). Chemical timescales are short ( lOOyr) and defined by ionization and irradiation. 

At collision energies below 20 eV, reactive collisions leading to metal compounds or metal compound ions may play an important role. Such processes represent potential sources and sinks for metal atoms or ions. By far the most important reactive processes to be considered in rarefied (only two-body processes) upper atmospheric conditions at hyperthermal energies are collisions involving molecular and atomic oxygen ... 

In addition to product isomers, the crossed beam technique also provides information on the highly unstable reaction intermediates. The identified intermediates have been characterized by resorting to ah initio electronic structure calculations all the reaction intermediates are doublet radicals, internally excited, and hence highly reactive in planetary atmospheres. Although under the experimental single collision conditions the gas is too rarefied to allow three-body collisions, the collision induced stabilization of the intermediates is possible in Titan s dense atmosphere. Notably, these free radicals have unknown spectroscopic properties which could make them responsible for the orange color of the upper atmospheric layers. 

Up to 80-100 km from the Earth s surface is the ionosphere, a region of highly rarefied and ionized gas molecules. The exosphere, the outermost belt of the gas shield, might extend as far as 1800 km. The losses of the lightest gases, hydrogen and helium, into space from the Earth s atmosphere occur in the exosphere. 

A recent concrete development is the dispersion of metals and compounds at high altitude(80—100 km and more). While 1 cubic kilometer of air at atmospheric pressure weighs 1 million tons, the same volume at 150 km altitude weighs no more than 2 kg In such a rarefied medium, a metal vapor such as sodium dispersed from a rocket will create a large brilliant yellow train visible at twilight, useful for the study of ionospheric wind and of temperature. The sodium release has been performed by the heat from 8 kg of thermite evaporating (at a temperature of 900 C) 2 kg of sodium powder mixed with the thermite. Oxidation of the sodium takes place slowly. 

Riarffaction Rarefied—Pertaining to the atmosphere at high altitude. 

Since the sublimation rate can be increased by a higher heating rate only to a certain extent, the rate of water vapor removal from the sublimation front becomes the key point in freeze drying. Adsorption of water vapor by sorbents placed inside a drying chamber or by direct contact of the sorbent and drying material (as a mixture) is one of the most promising methods in this area. Molecular sieves, zeolites, or ceramics can be recommended here because their sorption activity under rarefied conditions does not drop with temperature rise due to the heat of sorption. The use of particulate sorbents permits sublimation to take place in a fluidized state under atmospheric pressure [67,68]. 

In the rarefied intellectual atmosphere of London, Hooke began his independent career of many astouhdingly diversified achievements. He enunciated the relationship known as Hooke s law, which states that stretching in an elastic body, such as a spring, is proportional to the force applied. This law was later used to describe the motion of atomic nuclei in molecules. Hooke used a telescope to make several original astronomical observations and a microscope to describe snowflakes, cells (a word he first used), and microscopic fossils. Hooke speculated on using the barometer to predict weather, but he later doubted its efficacy, confounded no doubt by variables that weather forecasters still struggle with today. 

Grotthuss found that a mixture of atmospheric air and hydrogen rarefied 4 times by heat over mercury did not explode by an electric spark. Davy showed that this was due to admixture with mercury vapour or with steam formed hydrogen-oxygen mixtures form steam without explosion when heated in glass tubes, even at constant volume. 

We have developed a thermal approach based on a heat balance on a reference cylinder volume in the sample to evaluate the atomic oxygen recombination. The surface of this cylinder, 6 mm diameter and 3 mm height, represents the measurement area by pyrometry. Convective phenomena are neglected (rarefied gas flows) compared to the radiative fluxes to establish the equations for steady state heat transfer under different environments. The thermal balance is established under each atmosphere standard air, air plasma, standard argon and argon plasma, the determination of the recombination flux being done by difference between the experiments under air plasma (reactive) and ai on plasma (inert) [1, 2]. 

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