Prices/pricing comparative

Because of its excekent combination of properties, processibkity, and relatively low price compared to other fluoropolymers, PVDF has become the largest volume fluoropolymer after PTFE consumption in the United States has grown from zero in 1960 to about 6200 metric tons in 1991 (186). About 49% of the consumed volume is PVDF modified by copolymerization with 5—12-wt % HFP to enhance flexibkity. In 1992, Hst price for homopolymer powders was 15.32/kg, and for pekets 15.42/kg the reported market price was 14.09—14.22/kg (187). In the United States, almost ak PVDF is suppHed by Ausimont USA, Inc., Elf Atochem North America, Inc., and Solvay Polymers, Inc. Ausimont and Elf Atochem are producers Solvay is an importer of the resin. Smak amounts of resin are imported from Germany by Huls America, Inc, and from Japan by Kureha Chemical Industry Co., Ltd. PVDE producers and their trademarks are Hsted in Table 4. 

Natural Gas. Natural gas, an abundant fuel resource in the United States, has sufficient reserves to fuel over 10 x 10 U.S. vehicles per year for the next 50 years (122). Natural gas is used in two forms as a transportation fuel compressed or Hquefied at low temperatures. Tanks for the storage of compressed natural gas are heavy and larger in volume than for Hquid fuels. However, the added cost is offset by an expected lower pump price compared to gasoline (123). Whereas the lack of pubHc natural gas fueling stations and other factors make natural gas more attractive for fleet vehicles in the United... 

Polyterpenes enjoy a number of FDA approvals. They are not only suitable for adhesives with indirect food contact, but also for use in both chewing gum and in films that will have direct food contact. Their higher price compared to petroleum-derived equivalents has resulted in a significant decline in usage over the past 10 years, except where FDA approvals dictate their usage. 

Nickel/silicon alloy (10% silicon, 3% copper, and 87% nickel) is fabricated only as castings and is rather brittle, although it is superior to the iron/silicon alloy with respect to strength and resistance to thermal and mechanical shock. It is comparable to the iron/silicon alloy in corrosion resistance to boiling sulfuric acid solutions at concentrations above 60%. Therefore, it is chosen for this and other arduous duties where its resistance to thermal shock justifies its much higher price compared with iron/silicon alloys. 

Butadiene has the advantage of a relatively low heat of reaction (995 kJ/ mol compared with 1875 kJ/mol in the oxidation of benzene), but the disadvantage of a relatively high price compared with the other -C4 hydrocarbons. Good prospects has the n-butane route. Keeping the n-butane conversion at about 15%, the yield of maleic acid anhydride amounts to 50-60 mol %. 

Under such circumstances, companies tend to choose relatively small generating units with low capital investment per unit of capacity, which are quick to build and have a short pay-out. These choices reduce the overall risk of an investment and are today available by choosing combined cycle gas fired plants if natural gas can be obtained at competitive prices. Compared to present nuclear power plants, such units have 1/3 of capital/kw, take two, rather than four to six years to build. Being more acceptable to the public, suitable sites for such plants are also far easier to find. 

Despite the simplicity of chemistries presently employed for the commercially available hyperbranched polymers, these materials are still relatively high priced compared to traditional commodity polymers. This is undoubtedly related to the early stage, low volume demands for these products. Hyperbranched polymers will evolve as substitutes for traditional polymers as their unique properties are used to greatly enhance products on a cost-performance basis. In summary, the enhanced used of hyperbranched polymers in engineered products will depend upon many of the following prerequisites ... 

The market is fast-growing in the USA where there is a considerable amount of wood residues of low prices comparable with those of inorganic fillers such as talc and calcium carbonate. 

Table 8.9 shows the non-fuel uses of toluene. Some of the toluene goes into gasoline depending on its supply and price compared to other octane enhancers. Of the other uses of toluene about half is converted into benzene by hydrodealkylation, though this amount varies with the price difference between benzene and toluene. 2,4-Toluene diisocyanate (TDI) is a monomer for polyurethanes. Included in miscellaneous uses is 2,4,6-trinitrotoluene (TNT) as an explosive. 

The challenge for the whole PV sector is to reduce manufacturing costs and increase volumes in order to provide electricity at prices comparable to conventional sources (and therefore being capable of getting rid of incentives) and to represent a much larger share in the energy mix compared with the negligible numbers of today (well below 0.1% of the electricity supply world-wide). 

In 2006, a much smaller number of households (minus 34 per cent) produced the same amount of opium due to higher yields and sold it for a much higher price compared to 2005. As a consequence, the total value of the national opium production, which increased considerably, was distributed among fewer households. This concentration led to an unusually high average household cash income of US 437 in opium cultivating households in 2006, an increase by 50 per cent compared to 2005. 

Materials,—The materials used in the manufacture of soap, are the various kinds of oil or fat, resin, and the alkalies, potassa and soda. All oils and fats of whatever kind, vegetal or animal, yield soaps, when treated with alkali, as will he subsequently described. Only a very limited number, however, is used in thiB manufacture and these such as may be obtained at a very low price compared with that of the others. In Great Britain palm-oil is probably consumed in greater quantity than any other, and principally in the production of hard soap for soft soaps, the various kiuds of fish-oils, the drying oils from seeds, and tallow are mostly employed. 

To put some additional context around demand for hydrogen-powered vehicles, their biggest competitor in the near-term is likely to come from hybrid (gas-electric powered) vehicles. Unlike hydrogen-powered vehicles, hybrid vehicles are priced comparably to gas-only powered vehicles, and already are gaining widespread acceptance in the consumer automotive market. However, hybrids face their own challenges—in the U.S., they are expected to account for only 20 percent of the total car market in five years.29... 

Hydrogen is a redncing agent that has some special advantages. One is the low price, compared with some extraordinary chemical compounds. Without additional stabilizers, syntheses nsnally end np with oifly electrostatically stabilized nanoparticles. Hydrosols of Pd, Pt, Rh, and Ir can be yielded from the corresponding hydroxides. " ... 

The largest asset of lead-acid batteries is their low price, compared to any other secondary battery currently available. The energy density is inherently low, but in its main application as a car battery this is tolerable. For application as the main power source of electric vehicles, an energy density of at least 100 W h/kg is necessary. This corresponds to 58% of the theoretical energy density - a very difficult goal. Power density is another limitation, particularly since increasing the power decreases the energy density substantially. 

Use in animal feeds. Hulls can be used in ruminant feeds when finely ground and mixed with other ingredients. When adequate energy is provided, sunflower hull pellets may be used as a portion of the roughage component in ruminant rations due to their high content of cellulose and lignin. They are used to add bulk to concentrated rations and to absorb liquids such as molasses. Sunflower hulls are sold to feed manufacturers and livestock feeders at prices comparable to those of other ingredients (38). 

In addition, the methodology recognizes a key difference between the economics of commodities and specialty products that is easily overlooked. There is little risk that a commodity chemical manufactined by a new manufacturer or plant will go unsold if it is priced comparable to the competition. This is because manufacturers are generally imable to differentiate their commodity products from those of their competitors if they are priced the same, and so by the laws of supply and demand, any small increase in supply will lead to a small decrease in price for all manufacturers of the commodity as the market absorbs all the commodity produced by the new manufacturer. As all of the commodity manufactured at a new plant will sell at this new market price, the primary business decision is whether the investment in a new plant is justified by its return. 

Despite their clear technical benetits, including non-toxicity and excellent smoke-suppressant activity, markets for ZHS and ZS have been somewhat limited to date, primarily because of their relatively high price compared with certain traditional flame retardants, particularly Sb203. Consequently, recent studies have focused on the development of more cost effective tin-based systems. 

---