Philosophers

E, P, Wigner, in The Place of Consciousness in Modem Physics, C. Muses and A, M. Young, eds., Consciousness and Reality, Outerbridge and Lazzard, New York, 1972 reprinted in E, P, Wigner, Philosophical Reflections and Syntheses, Springer-Verlag, Berlin, 1997. 

M. Steiner, The Applicability of Mathematics as a Philosophical Problem, Harvard University Press, Cambridge, MA, 1998. 

S, F. Savitc, ed, Time s Arrow Today, Recent Physical and Philosophical Work on the Direction of Time, University EYess, Cambridge, 1995. 

Over and beyond the representations of chemical structures presented so far, there are others for specific applications. Some of the representations discussed in this section, e.g., fragment coding or hash coding, can also be seen as structure descriptors, but this is a more philosophical question. Structure descriptors are introduced in Chapter 8. 

L and W C Mackrodt 1994. Density Functional Theory and Interionic Potentials. Philosophical gazine B69-.871-878. 

Finnis M W and J E Sinclair 1984. A Simple Empirical N-body Potential for Transition Metals. Philosophical Magazine A50-.45-55. 

Sutton A P and J Chen 1990. Long-range Finnis-Sinclair Potentials. Philosophical Magazine Letters 61 139-146. 

Essex J W, M M Harm and W G Richards 1994. Molecular Dynamics of a Hydrated Phospholipi Bilayer. Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society of London 8344 239-260. 

The way out of this dilemma is to make measurements at several (nonideal) molarities m and extrapolate the results to a hypothetieal value of at m = 0. In so doing we have extrapolated out the nonideality because at m = 0 all solutions are ideal. Rather than ponder the philosophical meaning of a solution in which the solute is not there, it is better to concentrate on the error due to interionic interactions, which becomes smaller and smaller as the ions become more widely separated. At the extrapolated value of m = 0, ions have been moved to an infinite distance where they cannot interact. 

The scientific method, as mentioned, involves observation and experimentation (research) to discover or establish facts. These are followed by deduction or hypothesis, establishing theories or principles. This sequence, however, may be reversed. The noted twentieth-century philosopher Karl Popper, who also dealt with science, expressed the view that the scientist s work starts not with collection of data (observation) but with selection of a suitable problem (theory). In fact, both of these paths can be involved. vSignificant and sometimes accidental observations can be made without any preconceived idea of a problem or theory and vice versa. The scientist, however, must have a well-prepared, open mind to be able to recognize the significance of such observations and must be able to follow them through. Science always demands rigorous standards of procedure, reproducibility, and open discussion that set reason over irrational belief. 

This is not the place to discuss the frequently reviewed historical and philosophical aspects of alchemy, but it is worthwhile to recall some rather late adherence to the precepts of alchemy by giants of the human intellectual endeavor. Johann Wolfgang Goethe is best known for his poetry and literature as the author of Faust. Tie himself, however, considered some of his major achievements to be in science. His interests were varied but also related to chemistry. He developed an early interest in alchemy, which, however, he overcame in later life. Goethe s classic character Faust reflects his fascination with the alchemist s effort to produce gold but eventually recognizes its futility and failure. 

L. Philosoph. Thesis Conservatoire National des Arts et Metiers, Paris, 1970. 

F. R. W. Hunt, ed.. Internal Ballistics, Philosophical Library, New York, 1951. 

E. N. Harvey, A Histoy ofEuminescence, American Philosophical Society, Philadelphia, Pa., 1957. 

Systematic studies of membrane phenomena can be traced to the eighteenth century philosopher scientists. For example, Abbn Nolet coined the word osmosis to describe permeation of water through a diaphragm in 1748. Through the nineteenth and early twentieth centuries, membranes had no industrial or commercial uses but were used as laboratory tools to develop physical/chemical theories. 

In some of his work, Pliny the Elder (24—79 Ad) wrote of the heating of wine with flames. In the tenth century, the Persian philosopher Avicenna (980—1037 ad) described a distillation stUl. Magister Salemus wrote about "aqua ardens" around 1150 AD. The German alchemist and philosopher, Albertus Magnus (1200—1280 ad), studied wine distillation, made improvements, and wrote a manuscript on the production of aqua ardens. 

H. Smith, Erom Fish to Philosopher, Doubleday, Garden City, N.J., 1961. 

There is the additional philosophical issue of whether to have a large number of simple phases with Few options each, or a small number of complex phases with numerous options. The issues are a little different from struc turing a complex computer program into subprograms. Each possible alternative will have advantages and disadvantages. 

The concept of the corrosion process, derived from the Latin corrodere (to eat away, to destroy), first appeared in the Philosophical Transactions in 1667 [2]. It was discussed in a German translation from the French on the manufacture of white lead in 1785 and was mentioned in 1836 in the translation of an English paper by Davy on the cathodic protection of iron in seawater [3]. However, almost until the present day, the term was used indiscriminately for corrosion reaction, corrosion effects, and corrosion damage. Only in DIN 50900, Part I, were these terms distinguished and defined [4] (see Section 2.1). 

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