Particulate matter respiratory diseases

Particulate matter is a complex emission that is classified as either suspended particulate matter, total suspended particulate matter, or simply, particulate matter. For human health purposes, the fraction of particulate matter that has been shown to contribute to respiratory diseases is termed PMio (i.e., particulate matter with sizes less than 10 tim). From a control standpoint, particulate matter can be characterized as follows (1) particle size distribution and (2) particulate matter concentration in the emission (mg/m ). On occasion, physical property descriptions may also be employed when there are specific control applications. 

One hint of possible trouble to come is provided by the information we described in Chapter 4, related to airborne particulate matter (PM). The available evidence ascribes significant increases in the risks of asthma and other respiratory diseases, certain cardiovascular conditions, and lung cancer to PM exposure, particularly those that average less than 2.5 pm (2500 nm) in size. As we noted, the chemical composition of these particles varies widely, depending upon source, but may not be as important as particle size as a risk determinant. Moreover, there is some experimental evidence pointing to the so-called ultra-fines, PM with dimensions below 100 nm, as significant contributors to PM risk. In addition some experimental studies have demonstrated that ultrafines not only distribute themselves throughout the airways, but seem to be able to translocate to other parts of the body - liver, heart, perhaps the CNS. 

Particulate matter air pollution is especially harmful to people with lung disease such as asthma and chronic obstructive pulmonary disease (COPD), which includes chronic bronchitis and emphysema, as well as people with heart disease. Exposure to particulate air pollution can trigger asthma attacks and cause wheezing, coughing, and respiratory irritation in individuals with sensitive airways. It was estimated in one major study that the excess risk of total mortality is 6.2% per each increase in 10pgPM2.s/m and 9.3% for cardiopulmonary mortality. ... 

SOx can react with other compounds in the atmosphere to form small particles. These small particles penetrate deeply into sensitive parts of the lungs and can cause or worsen respiratory disease and aggravate existing heart disease. EPAs NAAQS for particulate matter (PM) are designed to provide protection against these health effects. 

Several epidemiological studies show that fine and ultrafine (<0.1 pm) particulate matter and air pollution can pose adverse health effects including respiratory, cardiovascular, allergic, and carcinogenic diseases (Kiinzli et al., 2000 Donaldson et al., 2003 Bernstein et al., 2004). It appears also that ultrafine particles, after deposition in the lung and gain access to the pulmonary interstitium, can penetrate the systemic circulation and exert more toxicity than coarse and fine particles (Oberdorster, 2001 Bernstein et al., 2004). 

EPA recognizes that scientific studies show a link between inhal-able PM (alone and in combination with other pollutants in the air) and a series of health effects. While both coarse and fine particles accumulated in the respiratory system and are associated with numerous adverse health effects, fine particles have been more clearly tied to the most serious health effects. Fine particles have been associated with decreased lung functions, disease, and even premature death. The elderly and children are notable in the sensitive groups that appear to be at greatest risk (JAWMA Special Issues, July and August 2000 PM2000, Particulate Matter and Health—The Scientific Basis for Remlatory Decision Making). 

Respiratory disease may often be traced to an external source such as an inhaled allergen, pathogen, particulate matter, chemical irritant, or other, undefined material. Ideally, the resulting disease state would be abolished by removing the suspect material from the environment however, often this is not possible. We are left then to define effective drugs for the treatment of bronchial asthma, chronic bronchitis, chronic pulmonary emphysema, and a variety of other debilitating respiratory diseases. 

Many trace metals are present in leaded and unleaded petrol, diesel oil, anti-wear substances added to lubricants, brake pads and tyres, and are emitted by vehicle exhaust pipes (Caselles et al. 2002). Soluble metals have been implieated in particulate matter-associated respiratory or eardiopulmonary disease in healthy and compromised individuals (Frampton et al. 1999 Chapman et al. 1997). Since man has about 70% body mass as water and given the solubility of WS trace metals in water, WS metals possess an appreciative damage to our health. 

Chen Y, Yang Q, Krewski D, Burnett RT, Shi Y, McGrail KM (2005) The effect of coarse ambient particulate matter on first, second, and overall hospital admissions for respiratory disease among the elderly. Inhal Toxicol 17 649-655 Cifuentes LA, Vega J, Kopfer K, Lave LB (2000) Effect of the fine fraction of particulate matter versus the coarse mass and other pollutants on daily mortality in Santiago, Chile. J Air Waste Manag Assoc 50 1287-1298... 

Evidence has grown over the last decade, that urban airborne particles at ambient concentration levels common in many cities in Europe, America and Asia exert adverse effects on human health. Short- or long-term exposure to particulate matter (measured as PMio or PM2.5) is associated with an increase risk of cardiovascular and respiratory morbidity and mortality. Collectively the toxicological and epidemiological studies provide sufficient evidence that a causal relationship is likely to exist between exposure to ambient concentrations of PMjo or PM2.5 and specific human morbidity (exacerbation of chronic bronchitis, asthma or coronary heart disease) and premature deaths. 

Dominici F, Peng RD, Bell ML et al (2006) Fine particulate air pollution and hospital admission for cardiovascular and respiratory diseases. JAMA 295 1127-1134 Dreher KL, Jaskot RH, Lehmann JR et al (1997) Soluble transition metals mediate residual oil fly ash induced acute lung injury. J Toxicol Environ Health 50 285-305 Dye JA, Lehmann JR, McGee JK et al (2001) Acute pulmonary toxicity of particulate matter filter extracts in rats coherence with epidemiologic studies in Utah Valley residents. Environ Health Perspect 109(Suppl 3) 395-403... 

A high proportion of the occupational diseases caused by special substances are diseases of the respiratory tract, in particular, so-caUed pneiunoconiosis in the mining industry and silicosis, which is activated by quartz and particulate matter. Although these dusts themselves are not toxic, they can lead to chronic pulmonary damage as a result of an overload of the cleaning systems of the respiratory tract... 

Diesel exhaust is a mixture of gases and particulates produced during the combustion of diesel fuel. The very small particles are known as diesel particulate matter (DPM), which consists primarily of solid elemental carbon (EC) cores with organic carbon (OC) compounds adhered to the surfaces. The organic carbon includes polyaromatic hydrocarbons (PAH), some of which cause cancer when tested in animals. Workers exposed to diesel exhaust face the risk of health effects ranging from irritation of the eyes and nose, headaches and nausea, to respiratory disease and lung cancer. 

Respiratory tract exposure is the most common and widely studied pathway of particulate matter invasion [14, 32, 35, 51, 84], and the same is true for nanomaterials. The inhalation of airborne natural particulate matter or engineered nanomaterials may lead to serious toxic effects for example, the prolonged exposure and uptake of these materials in the human lung can cause chronic obstructive pulmonary disease and pulmonary morbidity, both of which may lead to death [32]. Therefore, it is crucial to understand how these materials enter and reside in... 

PM An abbreviation for particulate matter. Often presented with a subscript, for example PM, , which refers to particulates that have an aerodynamic diameter of less than 10 micrometres (10 pm). These pose respiratory health concerns as they can be inhaled and can penetrate the lower reaches of the lungs, and therefore accumulate within the respiratory system. PM are particulates of less than 2.5 micrometers and are referred to as fine particles, which can present severe respiratory problems leading to respiratory, pulmonary, and cardiovascular diseases. See particulates. 

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