Painkillers morphine

C17-0101. The addictive painkiller morphine, C17 Hig NO3, is the principal molecule in the milky juice that exudes from unripe poppy seed capsules. 

Codeine is one of 40 individual chemical compounds (specifically, alkaloid compounds) found in opium. Only a few of the opiate alkaloids are used medically the analgesics (painkillers) morphine... 

The word analgesia is from the Greek an-, meaning not or without, + algesis, sense of pain. Codeine is more potent than other pain-relieving medications, such as aspirin and ibupro-fen, but less potent than the really serious painkillers—morphine, oxycodone -I- acetaminophen, hydromorphone. When a... 

The painkiller morphine is obtained from opium, the dried sap of the unripe seed of the poppy Papaver somniferum. 

In this chapter, we will discuss the last of the major families of simple organic compounds—the amines. Amines are relatives of ammonia that abound in nature and piay an important role in many modern technoiogies. Exampies of important amines are the painkiller morphine, found in poppy seeds, and putrescine, one of several polyamines responsible for the unpleasant odor of decaying fiesh. A diamine that is largely the creation of humans is 1,6-diaminohexane, used in the synthesis of nylon. Amine derivatives, known as quaternary ammonium salts, also touch our daily lives in the form of synthetic detergents. Several neurotoxins also belong to this family of compounds. They are toxic because they interfere with the key role that acetylcholine, also a quaternary ammonium salt, plays in the transmission of nerve impulses. 

Alkaloids are naturally occurring amines that are powerfully active biologically. They are among the most useful medicinal agents known. The painkiller morphine and the antimalarial agent quinine are typical examples. At the same time, some of the... 

In earlier times, when relatively few pure organic chemicals were known, new compounds were named at the whim of their discoverer. Thus, urea (CH4N20) is a crystalline substance isolated from urine morphine (C H NOj) is an analgesic (painkiller) named after Morpheus, the Greek god of dreams and barbituric acid is a tranquilizing agent said to be named by its discoverer in honor of... 

The profound physiological effects of alkaloids have been known for centuries. For example, Socrates was put to death with an extract of hemlock, which contains a poisonous alkaloid, coniine. Other alkaloids have long been valued for their beneficial medical effects. Examples include morphine (a painkiller), quinine (used to treat malaria), and atropine (used to treat Parkinson s disease and in eye drops that dilate the pupils). 

A clue to possible treatments for pain was discovered in the 1970s when scientists found specialized receptor cells in neurons called opiate receptors. These receptors appeared to he well suited for accepting natural painkillers that occur in the body, such as the enkephalins and endorphins. Enkephalins and endorphins are naturally occurring painkillers similar in their action to opium, morphine, and codeine. 

The drugs naltrexone and nalbuphine are semi-synthetic analogues of the analgesic morphine. Morphine is a good painkiller, but has some unpleasant side effects, the most serious of which is the likelihood of becoming addicted. 

Currently, the world spends billions of dollars per year trying to stop the illegal production and use of opium, yet all societies greatly value morphine as one of the most effective painkillers available for those needing pain relief. Armual world production of opium is currently estimated at 5000 tonnes (about ro% of the production roo... 

According to the FDA reports, painkillers are the most commonly reported cause of adverse reactions. The five drugs causing the most adverse reactions include oxycodone, fentanyl, morphine, acetaminophen, and methadone—all painkillers. The sixth most common cause of adverse reactions, clozapine is an antipsychosis drug. Other drugs reported to the FDA for adverse reactions include estrogens, insulin, paroxetine (the active ingre-... 

The most commonly abused prescription drugs are opioids and opiates such as oxycodone and morphine, central nervous system depressants such as barbiturates and benzodiazepines, and stimulants such as dextroamphetamine and methylphenidate. Brand-name painkillers such as Vicodin and OxyContin, depressants such as Valium and Xanax, and stimulants such as Ritalin and Dexedrine are commonly abused (as are some OTC cough remedies). Although helpful and safe when used appropriately, these drugs can cause serious harm when taken in unapproved ways. 

Codeine, which could be derived either directly from opium or (more usually) from morphine, came to be preferred by many as a pain killer. Compared to morphine, codeine was less powerful as a painkiller but also produced less sedation and potentially dangerous respiratory suppression. Codeine is sometimes combined with aspirin or other drugs to provide moderate pain relief. However, steady users can become addicted to the drug. 

This increase in water solubility on conversion of an amine to its protonated salt has enormous practical consequences in drug delivery. Many important amine-containing drugs, such as morphine (a painkiller) and tetracycline (an antibiotic), are insoluble in aqueous body fluids and are thus difficult to deliver to the appropriate site within the body. Converting these drugs to their ammonium salts, however, increases their solubility to the point where delivery through the bloodstream becomes possible. 

Cranberry (Vaccinium macrocarpori). Excessive intake of cranberry juice, used to treat urinary tract infections, may reduce the blood levels of certain drugs, including some antidepressants, antipsychotics, and morphine-based painkillers. 

Structurally, hydromorphone is similar to morphine and has similar painkilling and other effects in the body. Hydromorphone by weight is actually a stronger painkiller than morphine. Hydromorphone is combined... 

Addiction to hydromorphone and other prescription painkillers is one of the major reasons behind admittance to drug rehabilitation clinics. Treatment for opiate addiction has been occurring in the United States since the early part of the twentieth century. In these early days of treatment, doctors in private practice prescribed narcotics to those addicted to opiate drugs. Later, governments outlawed this practice and began operating clinics where morphine could be obtained by addicts. Eventually, these clinics were also closed. At that point in time, addicts began to be treated in public health hospitals or placed in jail. 

In the 1970s, researchers were able to discover exactly how morphine works in the brain. When stimulated by tiny electric currents, certain nerve tracts within the core of the brain can produce a painkiller strong enough to allow abdominal surgery in lab rodents. The painkiller consists of simple amino acids that, in their naturally folded state, mimic the structure of the morphine molecule. They were named enkephalins, for in the head, and endorphins, for the morphine within. ... 

Oxycodone is derived from thebaine, one of more than 20 components known as alkaloids (including morphine and codeine) found in opium. In addition to being a primary component of oxycodone, thebaine also is a main ingredient of hydrocodone and hydromorphone, two other prescription painkillers. 

Oxycodone is available alone or in combination with either acetaminophen or aspirin. Its chemical structure is most closely related to codeine, but it has strong painkilling effects equal to those of morphine. 

Addiction to prescription painkillers is a major reason people are admitted to drug rehabilitation centers. In the early part of the twentieth century, however, treatment for addiction to opiates was actually self-administered. Private doctors would prescribe narcotics for opiate addicts, but that practice was soon outlawed, and local governments and communities established formal morphine clinics. By the 1920s, these clinics too were closed and opiate addicts were jailed or treated, usually unsuccessfully, in public health hospitals. 

Opium was used as a painkiller in Europe throughout the Middle Ages, but by then it was hard to obtain. By the eighteenth century, the use of opium was debated and more research was done to study its effects. Scientists learned how to extract from it white crystals of morphine, a drug that is used medicinally to this day. —... 

Narcotics (opiates and opioids) are natural, semisynthetic, and synthetic derivatives of the opium poppy. Drugs such as morphine, codeine, heroin, methadone, Darvon, and Percodan fall into this category. They are all depressants, but they are also potent painkillers, and except for heroin (which is illegal) they are prescribed to relieve pain and to control coughing and diarrhea. But because of their pleasurable effects and addictive properties, they can cause problems when taken for nonmedical reasons. Most nonmedical users take these drugs to experience euphoria, to avoid pain, and to relieve withdrawal symptoms. —... 

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