Offshore wind turbines

Wind offshore Wind turbines that are installed in the sea. 

For wind turbines most of the GHG emissions arise at the turbine production (rotor, tower, nacelle) and plant construction (foundation). The emissions related to the construction of the foundation of the power plant can vary widely, as offshore wind turbines require significantly higher amounts of steel and cement than an onshore counterpart. Typically, larger turbines have lower life-cycle GHG emissions than smaller ones. GHG emissions generally lie between 9 and 19 g C02-eq/kWhg for offshore wind turbines, and between 8 and 30 g C02-eq/kWhe for onshore units, with outliers up to 100 g C02-eq/kWhg (Pehnt, 2006 Weisser, 2007 Evans et ah, 2009 Martinez et ah, 2009). 

Although the federal government has regulated the production of offshore oil and gas for decades, it has no experience with offshore wind farms. Land-based and offshore wind development share many of the same tasks and hazards in fact, once a technician is inside a wind turbine, most tasks are exactly the same. However, the challenge of working on and from vessels and in and over the water with massive offshore wind turbine equipment introduces additional hazards and different risks (see Chapters 2 and 4). The oil and gas and wind industries share most of these offshore hazards, but overall, the risk associated with oil and gas hazards is greater than that associated with offshore wind. In this context, workplace risk is viewed as the product of the probability and the consequence of a hazardous event. The oil and gas industry works with a more volatile product, so the risk of explosion or fire on offshore platforms is greater than on offshore wind turbines. 

Nevertheless, no offshore wind turbines have been installed in U.S. waters as of December 2012. Development of offshore wind farms is more advanced in Europe. Countries such as Denmark, Germany, Norway, and the United Kingdom already produce electricity offshore, with an installed capacity of more than 4,900 MW (EWEA2013). ... 

TAB LE1 -1 Growth in Rotor Diameter and Capacity of Offshore Wind Turbines, 1997-2020... 

FIGURE 1-1 Growth in size and capacity of offshore wind turbines. 

TRB. 2011. Special Report 305 Structural Integrity of Offshore Wind Turbines Oversight of Design, Fabrication, and Installation. Transportation Research Board of the National Academies, Washington, D.C. http //www.trb.org/Publications/Blurbs/165263.aspx. 

Whether located onshore or offshore, wind turbines are characterized as machines or devices that convert wind energy into electricity. They consist of similar components, including a tower that rests on a substructure (or foundation), a nacelle that sits on top of the tower, and a rotor assembly that connects to the nacelle and includes a hub to which... 

A second difference between an offshore oil and gas platform and an offshore wind turbine is the inherent unknown of the geological structure underneath an oil and gas platform, such as an undetected high-pressure gas pocket or unexpected subsidence of the earth s surface, neither of which is a likely source of an emergency on an offshore wind turbine. 

Personnel transfers Higher More boat transfers expected for a worker on offshore wind turbines. Oil and gas platform boat landings and helipads are larger than those for wind monopiles. Helicopters are used more often for oil and gas. 

The oil and gas industry has worked in an offshore environment for decades and has many best practices and standards that would be useful for the offshore wind industry. Chapter 3 introduces regulations and standards that are followed by the oil and gas industry and discusses their relevance to the offshore wind industry. While the oil and gas and wind industries share many offshore hazards, the overall associated risk for oil and gas hazards is greater than for the offshore wind industry. The oil and gas industry works with a more volatile product, and the risk of an explosion or fire on an offshore oil and gas platform is greater than on an offshore wind turbine. Furthermore, offshore drilling platforms are manned and thus pose a greater risk to human life than does the unmanned wind turbine. Chapter 5 discusses the associated risks of the oil and gas industry and the wind industry in more detail. 

In addition, the committee was informed by industry representatives that many European companies look to HSE for health and safety guidance because it has the most offshore wind turbines installed has established clear jurisdictional lines and has the most established set of regulations and guidelines, which are updated on the basis of experience. ... 

For an example of technical requirements for offshore structures, see DNV 2011, Design of Offshore Wind Turbine Structures, DNV-OS-JIOI. 

AWEA. 2012. AWEA Offshore Recommended Practices (2012) Recommended Practices for Design, Deployment, and Operation of Offshore Wind Turbines in the United States. Washington, D.C. 

Fires in or on offshore wind turbines and substations 33 CER Chapter 1, Subchapter N, Part 145, Fire-Fighting Equipment NEPA, Codes and Standards (e.g., NFPA 12—Standard on Carbon Dioxide Extinguishing Systems) NFPA 850 RP for Fire Protection for Electric Generating Plants DNV-OS-J201(2009)—Offshore Substations for Wind Farms (Section 6) Safety of Life at Sea Provisions GL Wind Technical Note Certification of Fire Protection Systems for Wind Turbines, Rev. 2,2009 ed. BS EN 13565-2 2009—Fixed Firefighting Systems... 

Electrical safety on offshore wind turbines and substations Working with high-voltage systems that expose personnel to electrical energy involves such hazards as electrical shocks, electrical burns, arc flashes (burns and blasts), and electrocution. 

The authors define one person access as an individual crossing from a boat to an offshore wind turbine. 

Energo Engineering. 2009. Inspection Methodologies for Offshore Wind Turbine Eadlities. MMS TA R No. 627, Jan. 

Energo Engineering. 2010. Offshore Wind Turbine Inspection Refinements. MMS TA R No. 650, June. 

Finding 5. Some of the safety and environmental management system (SEMS) requirements for the offshore oil and gas industry would be appropriate for offshore wind farm worker health and safety and could be adapted to regulations for offshore wind installations. However, the overall risk to the health and safety of workers and to the environment associated with an offshore oil and gas platform is greater than that associated with an offshore wind turbine. 

Floating offshore wind turbines have great potential as they are not limited by the same conflicts of interest as the onshore and the near-shore offshore turbines. Furthermore, wind farm developers have greater... 

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