Installed capacity

Oxidation of methanol to formaldehyde with vanadium pentoxide catalyst was first patented in 1921 (90), followed in 1933 by a patent for an iron oxide—molybdenum oxide catalyst (91), which is stiU the choice in the 1990s. Catalysts are improved by modification with small amounts of other metal oxides (92), support on inert carriers (93), and methods of preparation (94,95) and activation (96). In 1952, the first commercial plant using an iron—molybdenum oxide catalyst was put into operation (97). It is estimated that 70% of the new formaldehyde installed capacity is the metal oxide process (98). 

World installed capacity for formic acid is around 330,000 t/yr. Around 60% of the production is based on methyl formate. Of the remainder, about 60% comes from Hquid-phase oxidation and 40% from formate salt-based processes. The largest single producer is BASF, which operates a 100,000 t/yr plant at Ludwigshafen in Germany. The only significant U.S. producer of formic acid is Hoechst-Celanese, which operates a butane oxidation process. 

Catechol is produced by coproduction with hydroquinone starting from phenol. Other techniques such as coal extraction remain marginal. The installed capacities (- 25,000 t/yr) are now sufficient to cover the demand. Catechol is mainly used for synthesis in food, pharmaceutical, or agrochemical ingredients. A specific appHcation of / fZ-butylcatechol is as a polymerisation inhibitor. 

Low Flow Operation. The optimum operation of a pump is near the best efficiency point. Some manufacturers curves indicate the minimum allowable continuous stable flow (MCSF) limits for every pump (43). In the 1980s, the processing industry experienced a reduction in flow requirement as a result of business downturn and installation capacity downsizing. The pumping equipment, however, was generally not replaced by smaller pumps, but was forced to operate at reduced flow rates, often below allowable MCSF. This has resulted in increased failure rates and reduced pump component life. 

Tide 1 of the CAAA of 1990 focuses on utiHty units located in ozone nonattainment regions of the United States, which include approximately 100 different areas where national standards for ground-level ozone (O ) are exceeded. More than 900 utiHty boilers are located within the nonattainment zones, including 90 units impacted by Phase I of Tide 4. These boilers represent approximately 400,000 MW of installed capacity and 60% of the country s UtiHty boilers. 

The total consumption of succinic acid and succinic anhydride in 1990 was 1,500 t in the United States, 2,500 t in Europe, 7,500 t in Japan, and 1,500 t in other countries. Production was 500 t in the United States, 2,500 t in Europe, and 11,000 t in Japan. The total installed capacity is in the 18,000—20,000-t/yr range. The total consumption decreased slightly between 1990 and 1994 mainly because of the replacement of succinic acid by fumaric acid in bath preparations, which is one of the main uses of succinic acid in Japan. The principal producers are Buffalo Color in the United States, Lon2a SpA and Chemie Tin 2 in Europe, Kawasaki Kasei, Nippon Shokubai, Takeda Chemical, Kyowa Hakko, and New Japan Chemical in Japan. 

Having decided the type of generator, the next questions are the capacity and unit sizes. It is usual for the total installed capacity to be capable of meeting the peak demand with spare capacity to meet outages for maintenance. However, consideration can be given to a supply from the electricity supply authority for peak demands and standby. 

Many dozens of industrialized countries now employ nuclear reactors for power generation, and some countries produce more electrical power by nuclear reaction than by fossil fuel combustion (France is an example). The United States, however, has the largest installed capacity of nuclear-powered boiler plants (in the year 2000 there are more than 120 nuclear reactor power plants in the United States). Nuclear power is also widely used for marine duty in both commercial and naval vessels. 

The total installed capacity of heat pumps will be more than the central heat pump. 

The size of the central heat pump will be smaller when compared to the total installed capacity of heat pumps in the distributed water loop heat pump system. This is because the central heat pump is sized to meet the block load of the entire building. 

It is proposed to build a plant to produce 170,000 t-y-1 of a commodity chemical. A study of the supply and demand projections for the product indicates that current installed capacity in the industry is 6.8 x 106 t-y 1, whereas total production is running at 5.0 x 106 t-y 1. Maximum plant utilization is thought to be around 90%. If the demand for the product is expected to grow at 8% per year, and it will take 3 years to commission a new plant from the start of a project, what do you conclude about the prospect for the proposed project ... 

In the U.S. about 8% of the energy is provided by biomass and almost 90% of this comes from the combustion of wood and wood residues. The use of biomass increased from an installed capacity of 200 megawatts in 1980 to over 7,700 megawatts in 1990. The search for cleaner fuels and landfill restraints are the main reasons for increased biomass utilization. The cost of waste disposal has soared and landfill sites are closing faster than new ones are opening up. The Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) estimated that between 1978 and 1988, 70% of the nation s landfills, about 14,000 sites closed. 

Figure 18.13. Additional installed capacity and investments into renewables to produce hydrogen for transport in the EU25. (Source ASTRA results based on HyWays country approaches to applying renewable technologies.)...

Dams are individually unique stractures and dam constraction represents the largest stmctures of basic infrastructure in all nations. The construction of a dam and power plant, along with the impounding of a reservoir, creates certain social and physical changes. The total installed capacity of HP is 640 000 MW (26% of the theoretical potential), generating an estimated 2380 TWh/year in the world, producing nearly 20% of the total global supply of electricity. 

Fig. 1.5 Growth in world wind turbine installed capacity...

A third relevant factor is the chemical composition of the membranes, with cellulose acetate, polyamide and a number of composite membranes sharing the seawater installed capacity. It is my estimate that polyamide membranes have at least 90% of the market. 

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