Normal cross sectional area

As an extension of their previous work, the Tachibana group (82, 83) studied the collapse fragments that occur when monolayers of 12-hydroxystearic acid are compressed slowly (18 A /molecule hr) at surface areas of less than 21 A /molecule, the normal cross-sectional area of a hydrocarbon chain. The collapsed monolayers were transferred from the subphase to hydrophilic supports by a horizontal lifting method for electron microscopic observation, which revealed (Fig. 30) flat platelets when the sample was racemic and twisted... 

FIGURE 3.10 Relatjonship between transmural pressure, P - and normalized cross-sectional area, (A -AoVAg, of a long segment of inferior vena cava of a dog. The solid line is a computer solution for a latex tube. [From Moreno el al. (1970) by permission.]... 

E single fibre collection efficiency it is the fraction of the particles which can be collected by a fibre from a normal cross-sectional area of the gas stream equal to the frontal area of the fibre... 

Tetrakis(cumylphenoxy)phthalocyanine (5) a PC derivative, having liquid—crystalline-like substituents (38—43) was studied because the cross-section area of the substituents is much larger than that of a normal alkyl chain, and therefore, the requirement of minimized free volume in the assembly may be easier to accomplish. 

S s, s Cross-sectional area S for minimum cross-sectional area between rows of tubes, flow normal to tubes 5,, for tube-to-baffle leakage area for one baffle for shell-to-baffle area for one baffle for area for flow through window S, g for gross window area S, for window area occupied by tubes Slope of rotary shell Specific gravity of fluid referred to liquid water m fft... 

These are short centre drives unlike flat belt drives. The belt slip in such drives is negligible. The recommended maximum power that can be transmitted through such belts of different cross-sectional areas is provided by the belt manufacturer. The normal cross-sections of V belts in practice are given in Table 8.3. The cross-section of a belt depends upon the power to be transmitted and its speed. To select the appropriate section of the belt for the required transfer of load refer to Figure 8.11 also provided by the manufacturer. It is recommended that... 

The ratings and sizes of main components and cables can be selected from manufacturers catalogues. But cables required for the switchgear internal control and power wirings, being typical of all, are normally identified by their cross-sectional area rather than the current ratings. We have therefore piovided the technical data and current ratings for the most common sizes of such cables for a ready reference in Table 13.15. 

Ap = HbW = cross-sectional area of the building normal to the wind (m ) W = crosswind dimension of the building (m) u = wind speed (m/s)... 

Generally there is a stiffening effect in compression compared to tension. As a first approximation one could assume that tension and compression behaviour are the same. Thomas has shown that typically for PVC, the compression modulus is about 10% greater than the tensile modulus. However, one needs to be careful when comparing the experimental data because normally no account is taken of the changes in cross-sectional area during testing. In tension, the area will decrease so that the true stress will increase whereas in compression the opposite effect will occur. 

The column diameter is normally determined by selecting a superficial velocity for one (or both) of the phases. This velocity is intended to ensure proper mixing while avoiding hydrodynamic problems such as flooding, weeping, or entrainment. Once a superficial velocity is determined, the cross-sectional area of the column is obtained by dividing the volumetric flowrate by the velocity. 

The superficial gas velocity (that is, gas flow rate divided by vessel cross-sectional area) through the iron-sponge bed is normally limited to a maximum of 10 ft/min at actual flow conditions to promote proper contact with the bed and to guard against excessive pressure drop. Thus, the vessel minimum diameter is given by ... 

Normally a calibration curve—molar mass against the total retention volume—exists for every GPC column or column combination. As a measure of the separation efficiency of a given column (set) the difference in the retention of two molar masses can be determined from this calibration curve. The same eluent and the same type of calibration standards have to be used for the comparison of different columns or sets. However, this volume difference is not in itself sufficient. In a first approximation the cross section area does not contribute to the separation. Dividing the retention difference by the cross section area normalizes the retention volume for different diameters of columns. The ISO standard method (3) contains such an equation... 

Assume 20% cross-sectional area is occupied by an emulsion and is recognized as a dead volume. This is actually the height over which the interface level wdll vary during normal operations [26]. 

Cross-sectional aiea allocated to light phase, sq ft Area of particle projected on plane normal to direction of flow or motion, sq ft Cross-sectional area at top of V essel occupied by continuous hydrocarbon phase, sq ft Actual flow at conditions, cu ft/sec Constant given in table Volume fiaction solids Overall drag coefficient, dimensionless Diameter of vessel, ft See Dp, min Cyclone diameter, ft Cyclone gas exit duct diameter, ft Hy draulic diameter, ft = 4 (flow area for phase in qiiestion/wetted perimeter) also, D in decanter design represents diameter for heavy phase, ft... 

A = total exchanger bare tube heat transfer, ft or, net external surface area of tubes exposed to fluid heat transfer, ft or, area available for heat transfer, ft (for conduction heat transfer, A is a cross-sectional area, taken normally in the direction of heat flow, ft2). 

Histopathological examination shows the typical corelike lesions in a high proportion of muscle fibers in older patients this may amount to 100%. Most typically the cores are large and centrally-placed, but multiple cores may occur in the same fiber cross section. Most older patients show a striking predominance of type 1 (slow twitch oxidative) fibers and virtually all fibers with cores are type 1. Sometimes younger family members have more normal proportions of type 1 and type 2 fibers but, again, the cores are confined to the type 1 fibers. It is well established that muscle fiber types can interconvert due to altered physiological demands, and it is likely that fibers with cores convert to a basically slow twitch-oxidative metabolism to compensate for the fact that up to 50% of their cross sectional area may be devoid of mitochondria. 

Equation (8.4) defines the average concentration, Ugut, of material flowing from the reactor. Omit the V ir) term inside the integral and normalize by the cross-sectional area, Ac = ttR, rather than the volumetric flow rate, Q. The result is the spatial average concentration a patiai, and is what you would measure if the contents of the tube were frozen and a small disk of the material was cut out and analyzed. In-line devices for measuring concentration may measure a panai rather than Uout- Is the difference important ... 

Figure 7.4. Digitised cross sections of femora from 67-day-old rats (a) normal control and (b) four-week suspended animals. Cross-sectional area of (a) is 5.3 mm and (b) is 3.8 mm, a 29 per cent reduction due to the unloading during growth.

In extraction column design, the model equations are normally expressed in terms of superficial phase velocities, L and G, based on unit cross-sectional area. The volume of any stage in the column is then A H, where A is the cross-sectional area of the column. Thus the volume occupied by the total dispersed phase is h A H, where h is the fractional holdup of dispersed phase, i.e., the droplet volume in the stage, divided by the total volume of the stage and the volume occupied by the continuous phase, in the stage, is (1-h) A H. 

In the context of elastic deformation two parameters, known as stress and strain respectively, are very relevant. Stress is an internal distributed force which is the resultant of all the interatomic forces that come into play during deformation. In the case of the solid bar loaded axially in tension, let the cross sectional area normal to the axial direction be A0. From a macroscopic point of view the stress may be considered to be uniformly distributed on any plane normal to the axis and to be given by o A0 where o is known as the normal stress. The stress has to balance the applied load, F, and one must, therefore have o Aq = F or o = F/Aq. The units of stress are those of force per unit area, i.e., newtons per square... 

In the above relationship p is an intrinsic property called the specific resistance (or resistivity) of the conductor. The definition of the specific resistance of any given conductor follows from this relationship. It is the resistance in ohms of a specimen of the material, 1 cm long and 1 cm2 in cross-sectional area (units ohm cm-1), the length being in the direction of the current and the cross-section normal to it. In other words, the specific resistance p of a conductor is the resistance of a cube of 1 centimeter edge. If the conductance is denoted by C = 1 /R, then the specific conductance (or conductivity) K, is given by JC= 1/a (units ohm-1 cm-1, mho cm-1, reciprocal ohm cm-1). Therefore, the relationship R = aL/A may be written as R = L/KA (units ohms) and the conductance can be expressed as C = 1/R = KA/l (units reciprocal ohms). 

The top tube sheet is normally aligned with the liquid level in the base of the column Figure 12.58. The outlet pipe should be as short as possible, and have a cross-sectional area at least equal to the total cross-sectional area of the tubes. 

Here, p is the density of the fluid, V is the relative velocity between the fluid and the solid body, and A is the cross sectional area of the body normal to the velocity vector V, e.g., nd1/4 for a sphere. Note that the definition of the drag coefficient from Eq. (11-1) is analogous to that of the friction factor for flow in a conduit, i.e.,... 

A cross-sectional area of particle normal to flow direction, [L2]... 

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