Nicotine abuse liability

Toluene, volatile nitrites, and anesthetics, like other substances of abuse such as cocaine, nicotine, and heroin, are characterized by rapid absorption, rapid entry into the brain, high bioavailability, a short half-life, and a rapid rate of metabolism and clearance (Gerasimov et al. 2002 Pontieri et al. 1996, 1998). Because these pharmacokinetic parameters are associated with the ability of addictive substances to induce positive reinforcing effects, it appears that the pharmacokinetic features of inhalants contribute to their high abuse liability among susceptible individuals. 

Foltin, R. W., The importance of drug self-administration studies in the analysis of abuse liability An analysis of caffeine, nicotine, anabolic steroids, and designer drugs. Annual Meeting of the American Academy of Psychiatrists in Alcoholism and Addictions (1990, Santa Monica, California). American Journal on Addictions Spr Vol 1(2), 139-149, 1992. 

The dopaminergic system plays a role in the abuse liability for some, if not most, drugs. The stimulants — opiates, marijuana, nicotine, and ethanol — all interact directly or indirectly with... 

Drug discrimination is also an imporfanf sfandard technique used in assessments of the abuse liability of novel psychoactive compounds, with relevance to attempts to develop novel nicotinic agonists for use as cognitive enhancers. 

Kalman D (2002) The subjective effects of nicotine methodological issues, a review of experimental studies, and recommendations for future research. Nicotine Tob Res 4 25-70 Katz JL, Goldberg SR (1988) Preclinical assessment of abuse liability of drugs. Agents Actions 23 18-26... 

Gullotta FP, Hayes CS, Martin BR (1990) The electrophysiological and subjective consequences of tobacco filler pH modifications a proposal. Available from http //ltdlimages, library,ucsf edu/imagesx/x/x/x/xxx74e00/Sxxx74e00,pdf, Accessed 23 July 2007 Henningfield JE, Keenan RM (1993) Nicotine delivery kinetics and abuse liability, J Consult Clin Psychol 61 743-750... 

The abuse liability of nicotine varies widely as a function of its formulation and speed of delivery. For example, in a cross-study comparison of abuse liability data, Henningfield and Keenan concluded that abuse liability was related to the speed of nicotine delivery and the nature of the nicotine formulation (Henningfield and Keenan 1993). This finding is consistent with data concerning other substances of abuse (Stitzer and De Wit 1998). Every medicinal nicotine product approved by the FDA has been considered for potential labeling and restrictions based on its presumed abuse liability. 

Henningfield JE, Keenan RM (1993) Nicotine delivery kinetics and abuse liability. J Consult Clin Psychol 61 743-750... 

Henningfield JE, Miyasato K, Jasinski DR (1985) Abuse liability and pharmacodynamic characteristics of intravenous and inhaled nicotine, J Pharmacol Exp Ther 234 1-12... 

Houtsmuller EJ, Pant RV, Eissenberg TE, Henningfleld JE, Stitzer ML (2002) Flavor improvement does not increase abuse liability of nicotine chewing gum, Pharmacol Biochem Behav 72 559-568... 

Houtsmuller EJ, Henningfleld JE, Stitzer ML (2003) Subjective effects of the nicotine lozenge assessment of abuse liability. Psychopharmacology 167 20-27 Hughes JR, Hatsukami D (1986) Signs and symptoms of tobacco withdrawal. Arch Gen Psychiatr... 

Schneider NG, Jarvik ME, Forsythe AB (1984) Nicotine vs, placebo gum in the alleviation of withdrawal during smoking cessation. Addict Behav 9 149-156 Schuh KJ, Schuh LM, Henningfield JE, Stitzer ML (1997) Nicotine nasal spray and vapor inhaler abuse liability assessment. Psychopharmacology 130 352-361 Schuster CR, Henningfield J (2003) Conference on abuse liability assessment of CNS drugs. Drug Alcohol Depend 70 S1-S4... 

Heimingfield JE, London ED, Jaffe JH (1987) Nicotine reward studies of abuse liability and physical dependence potential. In Orleand L, Engel J (eds) Brain reward systems and abuse. Raven Press, New York, pp 147-164... 

Tolerance to nicotine s effects develops rapidly and most likely involves multiple processes, although the pattern and extent of tolerance development is not identical for all of nicotine s effects. It has been proposed that rapid tolerance or desensitization occurs to the behavioral or reinforcing effects of nicotine. These effects are of such a short duration that a smoker continually cycles between a sensitized and desensitized state. This notion is consistent with the fact that drugs with high abuse liability have a rapid onset and short duration of action. 

Nicotine is an alkaloid derived from the tobacco plant Nicotiana tabacum. It is a liquid at room temperature and acquires a brown appearance with a characteristic odor when exposed to air. It is widely available in tobacco products and in certain pesticides. Tobacco products can contain 0.2-5 percent nicotine and if ingested, particularly by children, can be very toxic. Only a small amount of nicotine found in tobacco is volatilized and absorbed during smoking. However, the nicotine that is absorbed is done so quite rapidly through the alveoli and is detectable in the brain only 8 seconds after the first inhalation. Nicotine is believed to be the major component of tobacco associated with its addictive potential, or its abuse liability. 

Answer B. Buspirone has selective anxiolytic activity that is slow in onset The drug has no abuse liability and will not suppress withdrawal symptoms in patients who have become physically dependent on barbiturates, benzodiazepines, or ethanol. Bupropion is an antidepressant, also approved for management of dependence on nicotine. Baclofen is a spinal cord muscle relaxant that activates GABAfi receptors. Buprenorphine is a long-acting opioid analgesic with no effectiveness in GAD, and butabarbital is a barbiturate that may cause dependence. 

If nicotinic stimulation improves attention and allows for more effective inhibition of attention to inappropriate stimuli, then perhaps ADHD may be treatable by stimulating the nicotinic system both in adults and children. This may also potentially prevent cigarette smoking in some subjects. As the abuse liability of nicotine separate from tobacco products is extremely low (Hughes, 1998), such treatment may be acceptable for adolescents. 

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